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A protective mother brown bear assisting her two young cubs to hunt near a watershed. Credit to Mark Kelley. This month's articles series will discuss.., Admiralty Island, Alaska. Admiralty Island is an island in the Alexander Archipelago, in Southeast Alaska. The island is the 7th largest island in the United States, & the 132nd-largest island in the world. The nearest main city is Juneau, the state capital. The island itself is approximately 955,747 acres, & 90 miles long. The island has extremely few people, with a population density of 0.39 per square mile. The total population is 650, which makes it so that the bears outnumber the humans 3:1. The island is famous for its large population of brown bears, & its beautiful canoeing areas. The island is approximately 2.59 nautical miles (2.980519 miles or 1.398488 kilometers) from mainland Alaska. Since the island's coast is so untouched by man, many marine animals migrate closeby to the island every year. The majority of oceanic animals don’t live here year-round though, as they tend to migrate further south in the winter to survive. The oceanic resources have been used by the island's main population, The Tlingit Aboriginals, for a variety of reasons. In this article, we will discuss the Salinity, Tides, Temperatures, & Marine Geography, of the island, the most prominent ecosystems of the island, The documented marine flora & Fauna, & Finally, & how ocean acidification has affected the island. With that being said, let us delve into the oceans surrounding the wondrous, Admiralty Island. The Salinity, Tides, Temperatures, Marine Geography, & Basic Information Of The Oceans Surrounding Admiralty Island Admiralty Island rests in the Northwestern Pacific Ocean. The salinity in Juneau is extremely low, due to freshwater glaciers melting & mixing freshwater into the sea. The Salinity in Juneau is approximately 15.2 parts per thousand, which is extremely low for the Pacific. Salinity is measured in 1,000-gram increments of water. For every 1000 grams of water, there will be a certain number of grams that are pure salt. This is the way that salinity is currently measured. The Temperature charts of Admiralty Island can be found in a variety of places, such as but not limited to:  https://www.watertemp.org ,  https://www.tide-forecast.com , &  https://www.tideschart.com . The average yearly sea temperature for the Eliza Harbour area of Admiralty Island is approximately 45° Fahrenheit (7.22222° Celsius). The tidal charts can be found on similar web pages, including  https://www.tide-forecast.com , &  https://tides4fishing.com/us/alaska . The tide usually doesn’t exceed 5.13 feet, & usually doesn’t go below -2 feet. The deepest oceanic point within 5 nautical miles (5.7539 miles, or 9.26 kilometers) of the island is approximately 1,259.8 feet (383.7432 meters) deep. The oceanic floor surrounding the island is primarily composed of Rock Sand, & Gravel. The area is unpopulated, & largely untouched by man. The water is safe for swimming in, though the water is incredibly cold so precautions should be taken. The wetsuit thickness needed for the annual average temperature is 8 millimeters thick semi-dry suit or a drysuit. Unfortunately, we are unable to find information about the riptide, & currents of this island. You can go snorkeling or scuba diving around the island, but it is not recommended as there is very little interest, & it is extremely cold. The Most Prominent Marine Ecosystems In The Oceans Surrounding Admiralty Island Ecosystem Type No. 1: Open Ocean The majority of the creatures that live around Admiralty iIslandlive in open oceanic areas. They usually are just there to hunt, & then migrate away. This ecosystem is the farthest from the coast, & the most biodiverse.  Ecosystem Type No. 2: Sandy / Rocky Flats There are sand flats, but the only creatures really found in those areas are crustaceans. These areas are on the bottom of the oceanic floor, & are found everywhere. Occasionally, species of fish or crustaceans will build elaborate burrows below the sand, but those are the only real formations in the area.  The Documented Marine Flora Of Admiralty Island Unfortunately, we are unable to confirm that any species of seagrass, or kelp, are found here at all. The Documented Marine Fauna Of Admiralty Island  Admiralty Island is not very biodiverse marine-wise, largely due to how cold it is, & the fact that little to nothing grows here. The majority of animals found here are cetaceans or have a large amount of blubber to protect them. As of 2025, there are no accepted endemic marine species on Admiralty Island. With that being said, the list of all the most prominent marine species currently found around Admiralty Island: Eumetopias Jubatus (Steller Sea Lion), Orcinus Orca (Killer Whale), Enhydra Lutris (Sea Otters), & Megaptera Novaeangliae (Humpback Whale).  Directories / Credits Citation No. 1: “ Alaskan Oceans: Temperature & Salinity ” Written By Elizabeth Litwin, & Published in 2002. Published By PBS. Retrieval Date: September 29, 2023.  https://www.pbs.org/harriman/education/projects/elitwin.html Citation No. 2: “ Wetsuit thickness and temperature guide ” Written By Mark Evans, & Published On April 24th, 2023, at 3:05 PM. Published By Scuba Divers Magazine. Retrieval Date: September 29th, 2023. https://www.scubadivermag.com/wetsuit-thickness-and-temperature-guide/#Scuba_diving_wetsuits Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Marine Enthusiasts Podcast STEMScribe Our Loyal Patrons P. R. Ochoa

Today’s map is an antique map of the Southern Pacific Ocean. The Southern Pacific Ocean is a region from the Pacific Ocean spanning from the southern side of the Equator to Southern Chile. The area spans approximately 12,726 kilometers across.  The map is in fantastic condition, apart from yellowing in the upper right corner, wrinkles, & a few small creases. These imperfections are consistent with being used on a ship, meaning this map was likely used by a group of sailors. The dimensions of the map are approximately 38.5 inches long & 75 inches wide.  In this article, we will discuss the map itself, the translation of certain sections of the map, & analyze this antique nautical map. With that being said let us delve into the Southern Pacific Ocean. The Map Itself  A beautifully in-depth map of the Southern Pacific Ocean. Credit to Maps Of Antiquity. Due to the map being in English, there is no need for translation. The chart is centered on the Southern Pacific Ocean, & Oceania. The chart is was made to be uncoloured, however it has slightly yellowed with time. The chart has the names of various islands, seaways, & topographic features, with certain areas marked with a question mark, or as “doubtful”. The map is semi-accurate, as certain islands are not listed, & other areas are marked as unknown.  The chart has 6 different small compasses on the chart located in the center, upper center, lower left, & upper left. These would have been used by sailors to stay on course, & guide them.  An Analysis Of The Chart  This chart was originally designed in 1848 by James Imray, a Scottish Hydrographer, Sailor, & Cartographer. The map was produced & published in London, as that is where Imray’s cartographic office was located. Revisions & additions were made in 1855, with a new version of the map being published then. The map was originally made for Civilian Use, & was likely not used by any militaries.  Considering the time that the map was produced in, & the mapmaker, this map was likely made using Lithography. Lithography is a method of printing that arose in the 1820’s, & remained the most popular method of printing until the early 1930’s, when more efficient methods became available.  In the lithographic method, the artist will draw directly onto a printing surface, such as zinc, or copper, until they are satisfied with the drawing. After this, the surface will be covered with a chemical etch, which will bond it to the surface. With this process, the blank areas will attract moisture to the plate & repel the lithographic ink, while the areas that are drawn on will hold the ink. Water is then wiped onto the unpainted areas to help prevent the ink from deviating. After the map wanted is inked, the paper is laid over it & covered with a tympan, & the tympan is pressed down. Finally, these materials pass through the scraper bar of the litho press. Afterwards, an exact copy of whatever was supposed to be printed is revealed. Directories / Credits  All credit for this map analyzed today goes to Maps Of Antiquity, a wonderful New England map shop. To purchase this map, any other maps, or any other cartographic objects, please visit mapsofantiquity.com . To be clear, this is not an advertisement for Maps Of Antiquity, as we do not have a partnership with them. Strategic Partnerships  Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler The Marine Enthusiasts Podcast STEMScribe Our Loyal Patrons  P. R. Ochoa

A stunning Steller Sea lion colony, with a very large male in front. Credit to Andrey Giljov. This month's articles series will discuss... Admiralty Island, Alaska! Admiralty Island is an island in the Alexander Archipelago, in Southeast Alaska. The island is the 7th largest island in the United States, & the 132nd-largest island in the world. The nearest main city is Juneau, the state capital. The island has extremely few people, with a population density of 0.39 per square mile The total population is 650, which makes it so that the bears outnumber the humans 3:1. The island is famous for its large population of brown bears, & its beautiful canoeing areas. The island is approximately 2.59 nautical miles (2.980519 miles or 1.398488 kilometers) from mainland Alaska. Since the island's coast is so untouched by man, many marine animals migrate close to this island every year. The majority of oceanic animals don’t live here year-round though, as they tend to migrate further south in the winter to survive. There isn’t much seagrass around this area either, because the water temperatures make it very hard for anything to survive. One of the creatures that can survive though, is the Steller Sea Lion. The Steller Sealion is a species of Sea Lion found from Honshu, Japan, to Año Nuevo Island, California. They are found across the Bering Strait, & tend to stay in colder areas. The males are extremely fat, while the females are much slimmer looking, making it very easy to distinguish the sex. They are not friendly animals, & can be extremely aggressive if their children are threatened by any source. For this reason, people should generally avoid interaction with these creatures unless it is necessary. It is also illegal in the United States to interfere with these creatures in their natural habitats. They tend to congregate on rocks, & socialize this way. They are the largest of all the eared seals, & the third largest of all the pinnipeds. In this article, we will discuss the Discovery & Life of the Steller Sea Lion, the Mating Procedures, Practices, Cycles, Tactics, & Strategies of the Steller Sea Lion, the Distribution of the Steller Sea Lion, & the Scientific Detailings of the Steller Sea Lion. With that being said, let us delve into this massive oceanic creature. The Discovery & Life Of The Steller Sea Lion  The Steller Sea Lion was first described in the year 1776, & was first described by Johann Christian Daniel von Schreber. The species was named after Georg William Steller, who was one of the first people to interact with them in 1741. The males are an astounding 11 feet (3.3528 meters), while the females only reach about 9.5 feet (2.8956 meters). There is a massive sexual dimorphism between the two sexes, with the males being approximately 2.5 U.S. tons (2267.96 kilograms), while the females only reach 800 pounds (362.874 kilograms). The females can live for up to 30 years, while the males are only able to live for up to 20. Sea lions are brilliant creatures, behaving much like cats at times. Sea lions can perform tricks, remember commands, & have a long-term memory of at least 3.5 months. Usually, though, they aren’t very agreeable creatures, which is why they are much like cats. During a study in which two flower pots were placed in front of a female sea lion named Zwerg, & she was rewarded if she touched the instructed flower pot, it was discovered that Zwerg would pick the correct flower pot 83% of the time. This experiment was conducted by Lauren Highfill, in the Schönbrunn Zoo. They are also able to show affection towards humans they hold in high regard, & each other. It is unknown how long exactly this species has existed, but it has to be a minimum of 120,000 years, & a maximum of 220,000 years based on fossil records of similar sea lion species. These creatures are naturally very timid, & they do not usually interact with humans in the wild. They can be aggressive towards other sea lions, & even humans if provoked enough. Sea Lions have many different captive populations around the globe, which would prevent them from going extinct if some disease were to break out. They are territorial, but they usually don’t begin holding one territory until at least the age of 9 years old. They are rather social creatures & usually rest in extremely large groups. They sleep by hauling themselves onto rocks, & sunbathing as they nap. They rarely sleep underwater, as that could result in drowning. They swim by rapidly pulling their front flippers forward & back. At top speed, they swim at top speeds of 17 miles per hour (27.3588 kilometers per hour). This species is rather agile, as individuals swim hundreds of miles each month. Their diet is primarily fish-based with over 100 species of fish comprising their nutritional base. The most common species of fish they consume are Pacific Cod, Walleye Pollock, Atka Mackerel, & Pacific Salmon. They eat between 5 to 8% of their body weight in fish per day. Usually, they hunt at least 1 mile (1.60934 kilometers) away from the coast. Usually, they will forage for multiple days on end, to maintain their body weight. They locate food by feeling the ripples with their whiskers. Occasionally, they will seek out commercial fish nets, to steal already caught fish from the nets. This is rare, but it has happened before. Once the fish is caught, it will promptly be swallowed whole. They are not cannibalistic in any way, shape, or form. Their metabolism is fairly fast, similar to that of seals. Usually, they hunt strictly nocturnally. They have very few predators apart from orcas, & sharks due to how massive they are. Steller sea lions have a bulky build & a very thick neck with longer fur that resembles a lion's mane, hence the name "sea lion." Their skin ranges from a pale yellow to a light grey color. Sea lions also shed their fur every year, so they may look different depending on the season. Their current IUCN Red List Status is Near Threatened, with the last population assessment being on February 4th, 2016. Their population trend is increasing, with approximately 81,327 mature individuals. Conservationists are actively observing the population of Steller Sea Lions, & making sure that the population makes a proper recovery.  The Mating Strategies, Tactics, Procedures, Cycles, & Practices Of The Steller Sea Lion The Steller Sea Lion breeds via sexual reproduction. This species has two distinct sexes, & is not hermaphroditic. Their breeding system is polygamous. Their mating season is between June & August. They tend to mature between 3-7 years of age sexually but don’t usually hold stable breeding territories until 9. Their gestational period is similar to that of humans, being approximately 9 months. Fertility for this species usually peaks when they are most at the halfway point of their lives.   The females will court the males by lying in submissive poses in front of them. After the couple decides to breed with each other, they will breed in a safe location. Usually, only 1 pup is had per pregnancy due to the size of the pups. The pups will be weaned for approximately 1 year before beginning to consume solid foods, & beginning to mature into young adulthood. The mothers will care for these babies, & defend them fiercely from any threat. Approximately 25 days after giving birth, the females will breed again, & give birth every May or June.  The Distribution Of The Steller Sea Lion  The Steller Sea Lion is found from Honshu, Japan, to Año Nuevo Island, California. They are migrational, as they migrate south in the winter to avoid the frigid conditions. They tend to prefer extremely cold waters, & rocky coastal areas. Usually, they are in either sandy/rocky beach areas or wharves. Oftentimes, they can be seen sleeping on wharf docks. During Hunting Season, they will dive to extreme depths to hunt fish more effectively. The world record deepest dive for this species is approximately 1,400 feet. Between the 1970s & 2010, there was a mysterious decline in the population of adult female sea lions, that has been not entirely explained. Due to this issue, they were placed on the endangered species list in 1990. Thankfully, the population did replenish, which led to them being officially removed from the list in November of 2013. The Scientific Detailings Of The Steller Sea Lion The oldest fossil of this species was discovered to be approximately 800,000 years old. This fossil was male, & named GKZ-N 00001. This fossil was found in Kanazawa, Japan, which is located along the western coast of Japan's Honshu island. The Steller Sea lion has a bone structure similar to that of humans, in that they both have finger bones. Though they are not visible, the Steller Sea Lion has finger bones that are in their forelimbs. They have between 34 & 38 teeth, used for tearing parts of the fish in order to make the fish more digestible. Their phylum is Chordata, meaning that they developed these 5 characteristics all species under the phylum of Chordata develop 5 similar characteristics either In adulthood or as juveniles. The characteristics that they develop include, a notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, endostyle or thyroid, pharyngeal Slits, & a post-anal tail. Their class is known as Mammalia. Mammalia is classified by the production of milk by the mother for their child to nurse, a neocortex which is a region of the brain, some capacity oforfur or hair, & three middle ear bones. Their order is Carnivora which is a monophyletic order of placental mammals. These mammals have all evolved in ways to specialize in eating fish.  This order is the 5th largest order of mammals & has at the time of publishing, at least 279 species categorized under it. Their clade is Pinnpedia, meaning they are Pinnipeds. Pinnipeds are a heavily distributed & extremely diverse clade of semiaquatic species & marine mammals. Their family is Otariidae, which is a family of Eared Seals, with approximately 15 extant species. All Creatures in this family are strangely enough, not found in the North Atlantic. All species in this family have visible ear flaps, instead of ear holes. Their Genus is Eumetopias, which is a monotypic genus. A monotypic genus is a genus in which there is only one species. The binomial name of the Steller Sea Lion is Eumetopias Jubatus.  Directories / Credits Citation No. 1: “Steller Sea Lion” Written By Unknown & Published at An Unknown date. Published by the National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration. Retrieval Date: September 27th, 2023.  https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/species/steller-sea-lion Citation No. 2: “Sea Lion Smarts” Written by S. Dingfelder, & Published in 2007. Published by the American Psychological Association. Retrieval Date: September 27th, 2023.  https://www.apa.org/gradpsych/2007/03/sealion Citation No. 3: “Steller Sea Lion - Biology Fast Facts” Written By Unknown, & Published at an Unknown date. Published by the Marine Mammal Research Unit at the University of British Columbia. Retrieval Date: September 27th, 2023.  https://mmru.ubc.ca/biology/steller-sea-lion-fast-facts Citation No. 4: “Steller Sea Lion” Written By Unknown & Published at an Unknown date. Published By the IUCN Red List. Retrieval Date: September 27th, 2023. https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/8239/45225749 Citation No. 5: “The oldest record of the Steller sea lion  Eumetopias jubatus  (Schreber, 1776) from the early Pleistocene of the North Pacific” Written by Nahoko Tzuzuku & Naoki Kohno, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by the National Center For Biotechnology Information. Retrieval Date: September 27th, 2023.  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7456534/ Strategic Partnerships  Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Marine Enthusiasts Podcast STEMScribe Our Loyal Patrons P. R. Ochoa

A breathtaking photograph of Santorini's historic blue-domed orthodox churches in the hillside town of Oia. Today’s article will discuss the Documented History Of Santorini. Santorini is an island off the coast of Greece, located in the AeAegeanea. Santorini is approximately 104.57 nautical miles (120.337007 miles or 193.66364 kilometers from the nearest mainland area, which is Greece. It is a part of the Cyclades Islands, which is an archipelago located between Attica & Crete. There are approximately 220 islands classified within this archipelago. It is extremely popular for its beautiful white houses, with blue roofs. It is also popular for its boating tours of rocky coves & inlets. Santorini has 2 main cities, those cities being Fira, & Oia. The beautiful rugged cliffs attract many eco-tourists as well, seeking the beauty of the island. Many tourists from around the Mediterranean also enjoy Santorini for its unique seafood, as their cuisine is considered to be very high-class.   Their beautiful dark sand beaches are also regarded extremely highly. Santorini is very biodiverse, & has beautiful underwater ecosystems housing thousands of animals. For this reason, scuba diving is also extremely popular as it gives people the opportunity to see the beauty of it. From sea hares to sea squirts, Santorini is filled with beautiful marine animals. Santorini has a long, complex, & beautiful history dating back to the Neolithic period. The presence of a society on Santorini dates back to 3,600 B.C. These societies were constantly being damaged by volcanic eruptions, which unfortunately caused many structures & artifacts to be lost. Also, these volcanic eruptions caused many periods where a civilization could not evolve on the island, leaving massive historical gaps. Santorini & the rest of the Cyclades Archipelago were formed by overlapping volcanic eruptions. When Santorini formed, the island did not have its rugged cliffsides or its beautiful rocky beaches. The current landscape was formed by a colossal volcanic eruption in 1,620 B.C., which eroded everything & also blew apart parts of the island itself. In this article,e we will discuss the Documented History Of Santorini, the Aboriginals of Santorini, the Most Destructive Man-Caused & Natural Disasters of Santorini, & finally the Economic state of Santorini. With that being said, let us delve into this island of paradise. The Documented History Of Santorini Before Colonization By Humans The island first formed approximately 3.6 million years ago, due to volcanic activity when the African & Eurasian tectonic plates met. The island remained uninhabited until approximately 3,600 B.C.  After Colonization By The Minoans  In 3,600 B.C. an ancient Minoan colony existed in Southern Santorini, near the modern-day city of Akrotiri. This civilization was a part of the once-vast Minoan Empire. Due to the location of Santorini, the people were able to establish trade with Northern Africa, Cyprus, Crete, & Greece. This allowed their economy to flourish, & for the islanders to become fairly wealthy & independent of all external forces. The people of the city established a drainage system, squares, & multi-story buildings. They also had paved streets, & sophisticated art. This civilization achieved many amazing architectural feats, & had a very lively culture. This civilization called the island Strongilli, which was derived from the island's large round shape. This beautiful Minoan civilization lasted until 1,600 B.C. when everything catastrophically changed. In 1,600 B.C. a massive volcanic eruption devastated the Minoan Empire, & destroyed it. This eruption also devastated Crete, causing massive tsunamis & earthquakes. This caused a civilization to not be able to survive on the island for 300 years. The swift disappearance of a thriving society sparked rumors that Santorini was the lost city of Atlantis, but those rumors would eventually be dismissed. The next Civilization on Santorini was built by the Phoenicians.  After Colonization By The Phoenicians  The Phoenicians began inhabiting the island in approximately 1,300 B.C. They built a society based on trade & commerce, as it was a place where the East met the West. The reason for the economy being so heavily based on trade is because of the extremely convenient location of Santorini. The Phoenicians called the island “Kallisti”, as it meant most Beautiful.  In 900 B.C., the Lacedaemonian Commander Thiras sailed to the island, settled, & founded the city of Ancient Thira on the island. This city was built at Mesa Vouno Mountain, & artifacts from it can be found on display at various museums. Due to this, the island was renamed “Thira” in honor of him. During this time, Santorini also adopted the Phoenician Alphabet. They also adopted their currency.  After Colonization By The Venetians The Venetians had the island surrendered to them, in 1204 A.D. & stayed on the island until 1579 A.D. Soon after the Venetians began occupying the island, a catholic church called “Santa Irina” was constructed. This gave the island the name Santorini, though the legal name remains Thira. The Venetians advanced the island, & introduced many western agricultural techniques to the island. One of the things that they introduced to the island, was the cultivating of vineyards. These vineyards were used to make the famous Santorini Wine, which was extremely highly esteemed. During this Era, many Mediterranean pirates would attack the island, & raid it. This led to the construction of 5 fortified cities around the island. These 5 fortified cities are Imerovigli, Pygros, Emporio, Akrotiri, & Agios Nikolaos at Oia.  The Venetians would lose the island to the brutal Ottoman Turks, via conquest.  After Colonization By The Ottoman Turks The Ottoman Turks inhabited the island from 1579 to 1821. Throughout their occupation, they prioritized trade with the Eastern Mediterranean over the Western Mediterranean. Aside from this, the Ottoman Turks didn’t do very much with the island culturally or economically. The Ottoman Turks referred to Santorini as Dermetzik, which meant “Small Mill”. The reason for this name is that there were many windmills on the island at the time. Attacks on Santorini were massively decreased as the island acquired its naval fleet. Santorini was given a fair amount of Autonomy over itself, but it had to pay a tax to the Turks.  After Colonization By Greece  Greece fought their war of independence with the Ottoman Turks, & when they won they tried to take Santorini with them. After the independence of Greece was ratified with Constantinople in 1833, Santorini did not immediately become a part of Greece.  Historical Events From The 1900’s Greece only annexed Santorini in 1912. During this time, the economy diminished due to the introduction of steamships. Until World War 2, the island remained relatively quiet. On the 18th of October 1944, Santorini was occupied by German & Italian military forces. For this reason in the Santorinian villages of Pyrgos, & Karterados, there are large plaques commemorating those who lost their lives in World War 2. Soon after in 1956, a massive volcanic eruption caused approximately 85% of the island to be utterly destroyed. Many locals were forced to quickly abandon the island, & this caused a massive infrastructural collapse. It was not until the 1970s that the island completely recovered & began getting a steady influx of tourists. Santorini has a modern population of approximately 15,550 people. The Aboriginals Of Santorini Unfortunately, due to the number of times that Santorini has changed hands, we can’t say that there were Aboriginals on the island. Additionally, there are no groups that are historically agreed upon to be Aboriginals.  The Most Destructive Man-Caused & Natural Disasters To Affect Santorini Disaster No. 1: The Minoan Eruption Of 1,600  In approximately 1600 B.C., volcanoes 70 miles north of Crete erupted with a VEI magnitude of 6. This caused somewhere between 28 & 41 square kilometers (10.8109 & 15.8302 square miles) of ash, magma, & other volcanic debris to be expelled from the said volcano. This was one of the largest volcanic events in human history. This volcanic eruption caused earthquakes, & multiple tsunamis. This destroyed the Minoan civilization, & possibly caused a small volcanic winter, but that is unclear.  Disaster No. 2: The Santorini Earthquake Of 1956  On July 9th, 1956, a massive earthquake struck Santorini. It was a 7.5 magnitude event, & it utterly devastated the island. Soon after the initial earthquake hit, a 25-meter (82.021-foot) high tsunami washed over the island. This caused at least 53 deaths, & 35% of homes on the island collapsed. Almost all government & commercial buildings were also destroyed. This caused the majority of locals to flee the island & go to Athens.  The Economic State Of Santorini Generally, Santorini’s economy is fairly stable. Santorini’s main industry is tourism, as the island receives about 2 million tourists annually. Approximately 90% of Santorini’s economy is tourism. Agriculture is also a major source of revenue for the island, with grapes for wine being the biggest agricultural product. This wine is said to be sweet, & very rich. This wine is primarily brewed by the Santorini Brewing Company. Additionally, Santorini cultivates a unique kind of Tomato that is prized amongst many. This tomato is still actively exported to this day. Their Fava beans are also very highly esteemed, but they are not exported in large amounts. Only approximately 200 kilograms (440.925 pounds) of their fava beans are exported each year. The average cost of living in Santorini is approximately 1,211 U.S.D. (1134.77 Euro) for one person per month. Food costs an average of 482 U.S.D (451.66 Euro) per month. Directories / Credits Citation No. 1: “The history of Santorini – A step back in time”, Written By an Unknown & Published on January 29th, 2023. Published by Andronis. Retrieval Date: September 23rd, 2023.   https://www.andronis.com/blog/the-history-of-santorini-a-step-back-in-time/ Citation No. 2: “Santorini: A Brief History”, Written by Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by Santorini Web Portals. Retrieval Date: September 23rd, 2023.   https://www.santorini.com/santorini/history.html Citation No. 3: “Santorini History” Written By Unknown & Published at an Unknown. Published By Greeka. Retrieval Date: September 23rd, 2023.   https://www.greeka.com/cyclades/santorini/history/ Citation No. 4: “Santorini History” Written By Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published By Santorini View. Retrieval Date: September 23rd, 2023.   https://www.santorini-view.com/history-of-santorini/ Citation No. 5: “Santorini History” Written By Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published By Santorini Dave. Retrieval Date: September 23rd, 2023.   https://santorinidave.com/santorini-history Citation No. 6: “Cost Of Living In Santorini”, Written by Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published Living Costs. Retrieval Date: September 23rd, 2023.   https://livingcost.org/cost/greece/santorini Citation No. 7: “SANTORINI: Economy”, Written By Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published By The World Of Info. Retrieval Date: September 23rd, 2023.   https://theworldofinfo.com/santorini/economy/ Citation No. 8: “The 1956 Santorini earthquake & its devastating aftermath”, Written By Andriana Simos, & Published On September 7th, 2020. Retrieval Date: September 23rd, 2023.  https://greekherald.com.au/culture/history/on-this-day-the-1956-santorini-earthquake-and-its-devastating-aftermath/ Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Marine Enthusiasts Podcast StemScribe Our Loyal Patrons P. R. Ochoa

A photograph of a determined David Gruber in full aquatic gear. This article is a part of our collection known as the Marine Hall Of Distinction. In this special collection, we will discuss marine biologists who we feel have served marine biology & oceanography the most. We do this in order to commemorate these marine biologists & to show gratitude for everything they have contributed to our oceans. This collection has no relation to the main monthly series. This series is published on the 25th of every month, shortly after our article on the oceanic environment of a certain region on the 20th. Today’s marine biologist is David Gruber.  David Gruber is an American Marine Biologist, Ocean Enthusiast, Professor, & Nonprofit Founder. He is well known for his nonprofit organization, the Cetacean Translation Initiative. His career has been highly diverse, with work in subjects ranging from robotics to whales, to the arts. As of 2025, he is a professor at the City University Of New York as well as Baruch College, teaching courses in environmental sciences & biology.  In this article, we are going to delve into his formative years & education, his career & personal life, & his accomplishments, achievements, awards, & honorables. With that being said, let us delve into this esteemed scientist. His Formative Years & Education David Gruber was born at an unclear date in the town of Paterson, Northern New Jersey. In 1991, he began working on his Bachelor of Science in Oceanography at the University of Rhode Island, which he acquired successfully in 1995. He spent the next two years working on a Masters Degree in Environmental Management at Duke University, before moving on to a Master of Science in Journalism at Columbia University. Gruber acquired his doctoral degree in Biological Oceanography from Rutgers University in 2007, after working on it for 6 years.  His Career & Personal Life Gruber has had a vast, & diverse career, combining many fields in many different ways. He began his career in 2006, with the publishing of his first book “Aglow In The Dark: The Revolutionary Science of Bioflouresence”. The book is 263 pages long, & was co-authored with fellow Marine Biologist, Vincent Pieribone. Throughout the book, you are introduced to many topics, including glowing oceanic worms, biotechnology & its applications in humans, & glistening anemones.  In 2008, he was stepped into the role of Assistant Professor of Biology at the Baruch College, City University of New York. He continued in this position until 2017 when he became a full-time professor. Soon after, in 2022, he became a distinguished professor. While working as an assistant professor, he worked with a team of other scientists studying fluorescent fish, & reported the discovery of 180 never-before-seen fish to science. Along with studying these new species, he studied bioluminescence in moray eels, & nesting hawksbill turtles in the Pacific. Gruber first began experimenting with robotics & its applications in the ocean in 2015 with Robert Wood in collaboration with Harvard University. He invented numerous useful robotic tools, including a camera that enabled scientists to view the ocean from the perspective of sharks, a robot used for handling delicate marine animals such as cnidarians without causing harm, & gentle robotic arms that can be used on submarines & remotely operated vehicles. From 2017 to 2018, he worked with the Radcliffe Institution of Higher Education on a fellowship, studying jellyfish. This research he conducted would lead him to designing an educational animation, in collaboration with TED.  In 2019, he was awarded the Lagrange Prize in Turin, Italy, for his contributions to science.  In 2020, he officially founded the Cetacean Translation Initiative, a nonprofit organization dedicated to understanding sperm whale communication & figuring out ways that humans may communicate with them. As of 2024, they have at least 16 staff members, in disciplines ranging from linguists, to acoustics engineers, to marine biologists. It is an Audacious project, with funding from the TED organization. His Accomplishments, Achievements, Awards, & Honorables 1. He founded his own nonprofit, known as the Cetacean Translation Initiative.  2. He is a collaborator with TED, & has held 2 TED talks.  3. He is a respected author, with at least one title known as Aglow In The Dark: The Revolutionary Science of Biofluoresence. He co-authored this novel with fellow scientist Vincent Pieribone.  4. He is a research associate with the American Museum of Natural History on the subject of Invertebrate Zoology.  5. He is an Adjunct Associate Fellow with John B. Pierce Laboratory, at Yale University 6. He is a prolific researcher, having published at least 40 research publications. 7. In 2019, he was a recipient of the Lagrange Prize, a prize given to researchers who have made large contributions to the progress of science.  Directories / Credits Citation No. 1: “David Gruber: Marine Biologist, & President of Project CETI”, Written by Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by TED. Retrieval Date: October 26th, 2024.  https://www.ted.com/speakers/david_gruber Citation No. 2: “David Gruber’s PhD”, Written By Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by David Gruber. Retrieval Date: October 26th, 2024.  https://www.davidgruber.com/ Citation No. 3: “David Gruber”, Written by Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by the Schmidt Ocean Institute. Retrieval Date: October 26th, 2024.  https://schmidtocean.org/person/david-gruber/ Citation No. 4: “Baruch College’s David Gruber Helps Pioneer Revolutionary Technology to Study Deep-Sea Life”, Written by Unknown, & Published by January 17th, 2024. Retrieval Date: October 26th, 2024.  https://newscenter.baruch.cuny.edu/news/baruch-colleges-david-gruber-helps-pioneer-revolutionary-technology-to-study-deep-sea-life/ Citation No. 5: “David Gruber”, Written by Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by the Story Preservation Initiative. Retrieval Date: October 26th, 2024.  https://www.storypreservation.org/david-gruber-marine-biologist Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Marine Enthusiasts Podcast STEMScribe Our Loyal Patrons  P. R. Ochoa

The Harbour Porpoise Of Ostend Beach, Belgium (Phocena Phocena)  This month's article series will discuss... Ostend Beach, Belgium! Ostend Beach is in the northern area of Belgium. It is touching the southern area of the North Sea. It is on the mainland & is not an island. Ostend Beach is specifically part of the town known as Ostend. For the historical part of this month’s series, the history of the town will be studied instead of the beach itself. Ostend is approximately 61.66 miles from (70.957061 miles or 114.19432 kilometers) from the island of Great Britain. The actual name of the city is Oostende. This translates from German into English as “East End”. This is a bit confusing as Ostend Beach is in the northeastern area of Belgium. The German-speaking population of Belgium is in the western area, not the area where Ostend Beach is. This leads many to wonder how the town was named. Ostend has many different types of marine mammals in particular. This is because most marine mammals usually have large amounts of fat to insulate them from the cold waters of the North Sea. One of the more interesting of these species is known as the Harbour Porpoise. They are not endemic to Belgium, but they are found in extremely high quantities around Belgium. Harbour Porpoises are Cetaceans meaning they are extremely closely related to whales, & dolphins. They are the lesser-known of those 3. They look very similar to dolphins so they are often mistaken for being dolphins. However some defining characteristics of porpoises are that they are much smaller, they have a smaller proportioned beak, & they have less curved dorsal fins. The Harbour porpoises specifically are the most common type of porpoise that is found, many other types of endemic porpoises will be discussed in later articles. There are no known abnormalities in the Ostendian or Belgian population of harbor porpoises. They are large contributors to the ecosystems as they make sure that certain populations of fish & squid do not overpopulate in the area. They also help balance the food chain by just existing. In this article, we will discuss the life of the Harbour porpoise, the mating procedures, tactics, practices, & cycles of the harbor porpoise, the distribution of the Harbour porpoise, & finally the scientific detailings of the Harbour porpoise. With that being said, let us delve into the life of the puffing pig.  The Life Of The Harbour Porpoise  The Harbour porpoise was discovered in the year 1758 by Carl Linnaeus. The circumstances in which it was discovered are unclear. The maximum length of a harbor porpoise is approximately 6 feet (1.8288 meters) long. The females tend to be larger than the males by small amounts. Their maximum weight is approximately 200 pounds (90.7185 kilograms). The average life span of the Harbour porpoise is approximately 9 years. This does not vary based on gender. Porpoises are incredibly intelligent, as dolphins are as well. They have large & complex brains respective to other marine creatures. They are capable of recognizing themselves when shown other porpoises. This would imply that they have a sense of identity & that they have a high level of self-awareness. They are able to recognize humans as well. They are able to also hold grudges against humans, meaning if you wrong a porpoise this porpoise may show aggression towards you in the future. However, they are also able to show affection & love towards certain humans. The porpoise as the creature that we know has existed for approximately 50 million years. They can also occasionally be aggressive towards each other for mates or food. Porpoises are fairly social creatures, as they live in pods or groups. Some populations may migrate, but they usually have 1 specific territory. This means that they are most likely territorial. Porpoises can swim as fast as 34 miles per hour (54.7177 kilometers per hour), however, this is only for the adult Porpoises. Porpoises generally sleep with 1 eye open in order to keep their brain half on. They will usually sleep along the surface however sometimes they will choose to sleep in shallow areas & then come back as needed. Porpoises' diets mostly consist of fish & squid. Porpoises do not have specific hunting hours, they will hunt at all hours. Their metabolism is relatively high compared to a dolphin. Porpoises generally eat approximately 10% of their body weight every single day. They are not cannibalistic in any capacity whatsoever. Harbour porpoises have a small, robust body along with a short, blunt beak. They also possess a medium-sized triangular dorsal fin. Their back is dark gray fading to lighter intermediate shades of gray on their sides. Their belly & throat are white, with a dark gray chin patch.   The Mating Tactics, Procedures, Practices, & Cycles Of The Harbour Porpoise  Harbor porpoises mate via sexual reproduction. This species species of porpoise is not monogamous. Both genders of porpoises reach sexual maturity at approximately 3-4 years old. They are not hermaphroditic in any capacity. They cannot change genders. They are incredibly promiscuous creatures & often will attempt to produce more sperm to beat the male competition. Males will often approach lone females & attempt to mate with them. They will not mate in large groups. It is estimated that approximately 62.5% of mating events happen when a male approaches a lone female in order to initiate reproduction. It is extremely rare to see a male approach large groups of females. When the males approach the females, they will often go at very fast speeds in order to do so. They will also leap around the female occasionally. They will most often attempt to approach the female from above. The calves will often get separated from their mothers during this event. For approximately 25% of events, the calf will accompany the mother. During an experiment in which these mating events were documented, it was observed that the males always attempted to initiate breeding by positioning their ventral sides on the females’ left side. This extreme laterality in sexual approach has not been reported for any cetacean species. Males have also been known to have displayed their penis toward the female without attempting to initiate breeding. They do appear to have a specific breeding month or season, with that being from June to September. The females will often engage with more than one male per breeding season. The females will usually only give birth to one single calf. They give birth through live birth & they do not lay eggs. Their gestation period is somewhat close to humans, being approximately 10-11. They do lactate, often for approximately 8-12 months after the baby is born. Calves can usually consume solid food such as fish at around 5 months old. The calves will usually leave their mothers at 9 months. However, it can be up to 12 months.  The Distribution Of The Harbour Porpoise   The Harbour porpoise is found around 4 of 7 continents. These continents are Africa, Europe, South America, & finally North America. They do have geographically distinct populations. This species currently has 3 subspecies. These subspecies are known as Phocena Phocena Phocena in the North Atlantic & western African regions, Phocena Phocena Reilcta in the Black Sea & the Sea of Azov, & finally Phocena Phocena Vomerina in the Northeast Pacific. They have an estimated population of 700,000. The actual demographic of how many are in each area of the world does not currently exist. However, they are most commonly seen throughout Europe, suggesting the population is largely based in that area. Since they have blubber, they are able to survive in frigid polar waters.   The Scientific Detailings Of The Harbour Porpoise  Harbor porpoises are unique for their incredible intelligence. As stated in the first section of this article entry, they have shown signs of self-awareness & self-recognition. They also seem to feel emotions, both negative & positive. Whenever a caretaker who they get food from or play with enters their vicinity they seem to become happier & more relaxed. They are able to show some level of affection. They also have a very similar body mass-to-brain ratio as humans. They are also able to hold grudges against humans or other species who have physically injured them or caused discomfort in the past. Their brains are quite complex as well. Porpoises have spade-shaped teeth for ripping apart meat. They are vertebrates. In the porpoise's flippers, individual finger bones can be found. This is a remanent of their ancient land-walking ancestors. Porpoises do not have specialized organs that are only found in porpoises specifically. When swimming, they move their tail fin & lower body themup & down which propels themselves through vertical movement, while their flippers are mainly used for steering. Flipper movement is continuous. Some species log out of the water, which may allow them to travel faster, and sometimes they porpoise out of the water, meaning jump out of the water. Their phylum is Chordata meaning that they developed these 5 characteristics all species under the phylum of Chordata develop 5 similar characteristics either In adulthood or as juveniles. The characteristics that they develop include, a notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, endostyle or thyroid, pharyngeal Slits, & a post-anal tail. Their class is Mammalia. Mammalia is classified by the production of milk by the mother for their child to nurse, a neocortex which is a region of the brain, some capacity for fur or hair, & three middle ear bones. There are currently 6,400 species categorized under the class of Mammalia. Their order is Artiodactyla. which are even-toed ungulates. Species categorized under Artiodactyla are ungulates, hoofed animals which bear weight equally on two of their five toes, these toes are the third & fourth toes. The other three toes are either present, absent, vestigial, or pointing posteriorly. Their infraorder is that of Cetacea. Key characteristics of this infraorder are their fully aquatic lifestyle, streamlined body shape, often large size & exclusively carnivorous diet. Another characteristic is their incredible social intelligence. There are roughly 90 species categorized under Cetacea at the time of publishing. Their family is known as Phocoenidae. This is the family in which all porpoise species are. Species in this family are more closely related to narwhals & beluga whales than true dolphins. Their genus is Phocena. This genus has 4 of the 8 porpoise species. All species in this genus are classified as porpoises. Their binomial name is known as Phocena Phocena.    Directories / Credits  1. Harbor Porpoise - American Cetacean Society  2. https://waggonerguide.com/how-do-whales-and-dolphins-sleep/   3. The porpoise of hybridization – Marine Biology @ Friday Harbor Labs  4. The Sex Life of Harbor Porpoises: Lateralized and Aerial Behavior  5. https://animalia.bio/harbour-porpois  Strategic Partnerships   Reel Guppy Outdoors  SharkedSkooler  Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa

The beautiful hillside town of Oia on Santorini with its picturesque blue-domed buildings, & calm Aegean waters. Credit to Craig K. Collins. Today’s article will discuss the oceans surrounding Santorini. Santorini is an island off the coast of Greece, located in the Aegean sea. Santorini is approximately 104.57 nautical miles (120.337007 miles or 193.66364 kilometers from the nearest mainland area, which is Greece. It is a part of the Cyclades Islands, which is an archipelago located between Attica & Crete. There are approximately 220 islands classified within this archipelago. It is extremely popular for its beautiful white houses, with blue roofs. It is also popular for its boating tours of rocky coves & inlets. Santorini has 2 main cities, those cities being Fira, & Oia. The beautiful rugged cliffs attract many eco-tourists, seeking the beauty of the island. Many tourists from around the Mediterranean enjoy Santorini for its unique seafood, as their cuisine is considered to be very high-class.   Their beautiful dark sand beaches are also regarded extremely highly. Santorini is very biodiverse, & has beautiful underwater ecosystems housing thousands of animals. For this reason, scuba diving is also extremely popular as it gives people the opportunity to see the beauty of it. From sea hares to sea squirts, Santorini is filled with beautiful marine aanimals the most prominent of which will be featured in this article. Santorini is also held in very high regard for its red sand, & white sand beaches. These beaches are known as the Red Beach, & the White Beach. The red beach got its color from volcanic activity destroying the cliff, & exposing rocks that were rich with iron. In this article, we will discuss the Salinity, Tides, Temperatures, & Marine Geography, of the island, the most prominent ecosystems of the island, The documented marine flora & Fauna, & Finally, & how ocean acidification has affected the island. With that being said, let us delve into the oceans surrounding the volcanic isle of Santorini, Greece.  The Tides, Temperatures, Salinity, Marine Geography, & Basic Information Of Santorini  Santorini is in the Mediterranean Sea, meaning that it will have a higher salinity than the Pacific Ocean. The current Salinity of the AAegeanSea is 38.5 parts per thousand on average, making it one of the saltiest places on Earth. Salinity is measured in 1,000-gram increments of water. For every 1000 grams of water, there will be a certain number of grams that are pure salt. This is the way that salinity is currently measured. There are no external factors currently that seem to be affecting the salinity either. The Tidal charts for Santorini can be found on a variety of websites, a few of which are https://tides4fishing.com ,  https://www.tideschart.com ,  https://tidechecker.com , & finally  https://tidechecker.com . It seems that the tide rarely gets over 0.5 meters (1.64042 feet) on any given day. The oceanic temperatures can be found on similar websites, including  https://www.seatemperature.org ,  https://seatemperature.info ,  https://seatemperature.net , & finally  http://worldseatemp.com . There is an annual oceanic temperature average of 74.6° Fahrenheit (23.66667 Celsius). Santorini doesn’t have a high riptide, so it is very safe to swim. No wetsuit is needed to comfortably swim at this temperature. Santorini is not very polluted, & is in fact rather clean. Snorkeling, & Scuba diving are extremely popular in the region for this reason. Eco-tourism has also become increasingly important, as their trees, coves, & reefs are becoming steadily popular. The deepest oceanic area within 5 nautical miles (5.7539 miles or 9.26 kilometers) of Santorini is approximately 1892.6 feet (576.86448 meters) deep. There is a marine protected area on the island but it does not encompass the entire island. The main thing that comprises the oceanic floor is rock, seaweed, & compressed sand.  The Most Prominent Marine Ecosystems Of Santorini Ecosystem Type 1: Rocky Reefs Rocky reefs are similar to coral reefs, in that they are essentially a hub for oceanic life. They usually have interesting rock formations, that work similarly to holes in coral, in that they both provide protection from predators. These rocky reefs are usually less biodiverse though, & are usually in deeper areas of the ocean. These reefs are usually more intricate as well, as they usually have fish living inside of them, & tunnel systems. These types of ecosystems are usually found the furthest offshore.  Ecosystem Type 2: Seagrass Meadows Seagrass meadows are extremely common around Santorini, & can occasionally impede swimmers & pedestrians. Due to the large amount of seagrass that washes ashore, it can be difficult to walk along the beach. Seagrass meadows are popular areas for breeding, fish spawning, & hunting. The most common seagrass species around Santorini is Posidonia Oceanica (Mediterranean Tapeweed / Neptune Grass). These types of ecosystems can be found close to the coast or far offshore. They can be found 2 meters (6.56168 feet) deep to 45 meters (147.638 feet) deep. These seagrass meadows play an integral part in producing oxygen, & digesting carbon dioxide, so it is important to not pollute or otherwise harm them.  Ecosystem Type 3: Sandy Flats The sandy flats are areas of the ocean that are barren of much life & only have a few marine invertebrates & occasionally seagrass. They usually have things such as crabs & rarely, sea cucumbers & anemones. In this area, salinity levels are usually highest as they are found so close to the coast. These however are some of the ecosystems that have been impacted by oceanic acidification, & temperature changes caused by global warming. Temperatures have skyrocketed in areas that are usually much cooler forcing these animals out of their domiciles. Coastal areas were once some of the coldest oceanic areas for this area & now that temperatures have skyrocketed they have no reliable place to find these colder areas. These areas are usually also the closest to land unless there is a rocky reef jutting up directly against the shoreline.  The Documented Marine Flora Of Santorini  As mentioned in the subsection titled “Ecosystem No. Type 2: Seagass Meadows”, the main oceanic seagrass species found around Santorini is Posidonia Oceanica. This seagrass will often grow in massive colonies, known as meadows. Usually, their colonies grow at depths of 3.3 to 114.8 feet deep. When the plant blades die, they form into balls, which are known as the “Olive of the Sea”. Their fruits are also known as Neptune balls & will often wash up along the coastline. They often plague the beaches & make for a strange sight to see. They usually don’t impede visitors, but they can. These Neptune balls are brown, & somewhat crunchy. The interesting thing about this species is that it can absorb carbon dioxide in huge droves. This species is able to soak up 15 more times carbon dioxide than a similar-sized piece of the Amazon Rainforest in South America. Their fruits are also important as they are basically just dense balls of dead Neptune grass leaves. These dense balls are able to trap plastics within them & then carry these plastics to the shoreline where people can discard them. These species aren't threatened with extinction as of 2025. Posidonia Oceanica is usually bright green, however it may turn brown as it ages. It usually grows between 7.87402 inches (20.0000108 centimeters) & 15.748 inches (39.99992 centimeters) tall. It also grows usually to be 10 millimeters (0.393701 inches or 1 centimeter) wide. There are other species of seagrass, but we are unable to confirm exactly what species there are, & for that reason, we cannot provide information on them.  The Documented Marine Fauna Of Santorini Santorini is semi-biodiverse as it is in a convenient location for animals to migrate back & forth to. Additionally, Santorini has extremely favorable conditions. Their historical seagrass meadows, & their beautiful volcanic rock formations attract not only new types of fauna but also tourists. Divers flock to Santorini as to many, the island is a paradise. Many marine photographers adore Santorini as well their waters are crystal clear, making the animals easier to find. Generally, though, these animals are hard to find because they like to hide. The majority of the marine life doesn’t come very close to shore either, & has to be found out to sea. This is why scuba diving is much more popular than snorkeling. As of 2025, there are no accepted endemic marine species to Santorini. Now, for this article, we will not include nudibranchs, sea slugs, sea snails, planktons, lichens, sea worms, or sea urchins, as there are just too many of them. With that being said, the list of all the most prominent species currently found around Santorini: Hippocampus Hippocampus (Short-Snouted Seahorse), Aplysina Aerophoba (Yellow Sponge), Sygnathoides Typhle (Broadnosed Pipefish), Clavelina Lepadiformi (Light Bulb Sea Squirt), Rhopilema Nomadica (The Nomad Jellyfish), Pelagia Noctiluca (Purple People Eater / Night Light Jellyfish), Dardanus Arrorsor (Mediterranean Hermit Crab), Clibanariuserythropuss (Hermit Crab), Holothuria Tubulosa (Tubular Sea Cucumber), Holothuria Sanctori (Sea Cucumber), Enchinaster Sepostitus (Mediterranean Red Starfish), Sparisoma Cretense (Mediterranean Parrotfish), Tripterygion Delaisi (Black-faced Blenny), Pterois Miles (Devil Firsfish), Raja Radula (Rough Ray), Symphodus Tinca (East Atlantic Peacock Wrasse), Labrus Merula (Brown Wrasse), & finally Coris julis (Mediterranean Rainbow Wrasse).  Directories / Credits Citation No. 1: “Posidonia”, Written By Angel Pérez-Ruzafa, Paolo Guidetti, Carla Morris, Lorenz Schwork, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by Science Direct. Retrieval Date: September 21st, 2023.  https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/posidonia Citation No. 2: “Santorini, Marine Life”, Written by Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by Dive In Action. Retrieval Date: September 21st, 2023.  https://scubasantorini.com/video-images/santorini-marine-life/ Citation No. 3: “Marine Conservation”, Written By Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published By Archipelago. Retrieval Date: September 21st, 2023.  https://archipelago.gr/en/our-work/marine-conservation/ Citation No. 4: “Scuba To Snorkel, Diving In Santorini”, Written By Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published Orbizz. Retrieval Date: September 21st, 2023.  https://www.orbzii.com/see-do/diving-santorini/ Strategic Partnerships  Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Marine Enthusiasts Podcast STEMScribe Our Loyal Patrons P. R. Ochoa

Today’s map is an antique map of the coastline of the Carolinas. The Carolinas are the states of North & South Carolina, located in the South Eastern Area of the United States. Combined, they occupy approximately 85,839 square miles, with a combined coastline of over 3,565 miles long.  The map is in decent condition, as it has been restored. There is very little damage around the map, & all place names, geographic features, & waterways are clearly marked. The chart is approximately 27.5 inches long, & 37 inches wide. In this article, we will discuss the map itself, the translation of certain sections of the map, & analyze this antique full chart. With that being said let us delve into the coastline surrounding the Carolinas. The Map Itself An antique nautical map of the coast of the Carolinas. As the map is in English, there is no need for translation. The chart is centered around South & North Carolina, & lacks color. It is very clear as well as detailed, with most peninsulas, islands, & curves of the coast outlined. The names of various towns, states, & rivers can be seen on the map, with North Carolina to the North & Florida to the south.  There are 2 small compasses on the map, located in the lower center & upper right. These would have been used by sailors to stay on course, & guide them.  An Analysis Of The Map This map was produced in 1832 by Edmund March Blunt, an American cartographer, hydrographer, & bookseller. It was found by Maps of Antiquity, who restored it, cleaned it, & fixed its backing. This map was likely made in the United States, as Blunt’s cartographic office was based in Newburyport, Massachusetts. The chart is fairly accurate, with very little being left off or inaccurate. It likely isn’t a part of any particular collection. The chart was made for civilian use, & was not made to be used in strategic combat. As the map was produced in 1832, it was likely made using Lithography. Lithography is a method of printing that arose in the 1820s, & remained the most popular method of printing until the early 1930s when more efficient methods became available.  In the lithographic method, the artist will draw directly onto a printing surface, such as zinc, or copper, until they are satisfied with the drawing. After this, the surface will be covered with a chemical etch, which will bond it to the surface. With this process, the blank areas will attract moisture to the plate & repel the lithographic ink, while the areas that are drawn on will hold the ink. Water is then wiped onto the unpainted areas to help prevent the ink from deviating. After the map wanted is inked, the paper is laid over it & covered with a tympan, & the tympan is pressed down. Finally, these materials pass through the scraper bar of the litho press. Afterward, an exact copy of whatever was supposed to be printed is revealed. Directories / Credits All credit for this map analyzed today goes to Maps Of Antiquity, a wonderful New England map shop. To purchase this map, any other maps, or any other cartographic objects, please visit mapsofantiquity.com . To be clear, this is not an advertisement for Maps Of Antiquity, as we do not have a partnership with them. It encompasses the areas of the Atlantic Ocean near the Carolinas, & extends up to North Carolina & down to Florida. Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors The Marine Enthusiasts Podcast SharkedSkooler STEMScribe Our Loyal Patrons P. R. Ochoa

A statuesque photograph of a Short-snouted Seahorse (Hippocampus hippocampus), curled around a seagrass stalk. Credit to Hans Hillewaert. This month's article series will discuss, the Greek Island of Santorini! Santorini is an island off the coast of Greece, located in the Aegean Sea. Santorini is approximately 104.57 nautical miles (120.337007 miles or 193.66364 kilometers from the nearest mainland area, which is Greece. It is a part of the Cyclades Islands, which is an archipelago located between Attica & Crete. There are approximately 220 islands classified within this archipelago. It is extremely popular for its beautiful white houses, with blue roofs. It is also popular for its boating tours of rocky coves & inlets. Santorini has 2 main cities, those cities being Fira, & Oia. The beautiful rugged cliffs attract many eco-tourists as well, seeking the beauty of the island. Many tourists from around the Mediterranean also enjoy Santorini for its unique seafood, as their cuisine is considered to be very high-class.   Their beautiful dark sand beaches are also regarded extremely highly. Santorini is very biodiverse, & has beautiful underwater ecosystems housing thousands of animals. For this reason, scuba diving is also extremely popular as it gives people the opportunity to see the beauty of it. From sea hares to sea squirts, Santorini is filled with beautiful marine animals. One of the most wonderful of these animals is the Short-Snouted Seahorse. The Short Snouted Seahorse is a species of Seahorse that is endemic to the Mediterranean Sea, apart from a few colonies in the River Thames. They can often be found in coastal areas, such as estuaries, or seagrass meadows. The adults can often be seen with their spouses, as seahorses are monogamous. They are currently the only species of seahorse found around Santorini. In this article, we will discuss the Discovery & Life of the Short-Snouted Seahorse, the Mating Procedures, Practices, Cycles, Tactics, & Strategies of the Short-Snouted Seahorse, the Distribution of the Short-Snouted Seahorse, & the Scientific Detailings of the Short-Snouted Seahorse. With that being said, let us delve into this eccentric creature. The Life & Discovery Of The Short-Snouted Seahorse The Short Snouted Seahorse was first described by Carl Linnaeus, a Swedish Botanist, Naturalist, Zoologist, & Taxonomist. It was first described in the year 1758. This species grows up to 15 centimeters long (5.90551), which makes them remarkably small for a seahorse. On average, they are 1.88 grams (0.06631505 ounces). Unfortunately, no one knows the exact lifespan of this species, but it has been estimated at 1 year. This species of seahorse, in particular, is incredibly intelligent, & is known for its remarkable memory. This seahorse species has been known to use memories to make decisions and be able to identify individuals. This does mean that theoretically if someone were to wrong a seahorse, it would remember & dislike that person. For this reason, people should avoid harassing seahorses. Sea horses are incredibly socially smart & do often form emotional bonds & communicate with each other. They are incredibly social & often live in herds when captured, however, they often do live in solitude in the wild. It is unknown how long this species has existed, but Seahorses themselves have existed for approximately 13 million years, which gives us a fairly good timeframe to work with. In the wild, they usually don’t interact with humans, & are very timid creatures. They are not violent or aggressive, & even if they were, they would be unable to do much harm due to their tiny size. Occasionally, they will be caught by humans for scientific purposes, or be caught on accident by being tangled in nets. The diet for these animals consists of mainly shrimp. They are not cannibalistic in any form. They are ambush predators, & hide in rocky reefs to strike with ease. They usually consume between 30-50 shrimps per day, to maintain their body weight. They locate food with their vision, & by feeling the water waves. Their metabolism is fairly fast, as they have to move quite a lot to get their food, & survive. They are diurnal hunters, meaning they strictly hunt during the day. Their main predators are rays, & larger fish. They move by gently moving their dorsal fin to propel themselves forward. Because they swim upright, they are not very fast creatures or very agile ones. They are very poor swimmers, & do not often swim for any reason other than hunting or mating. They are territorial & do stay confined to a certain area, but they won’t fight other seahorses for their territory. They sleep with their eyes open, & sleep by just resting part of their brain. While sleeping, they will cling onto seagrass or coral with their tails to avoid drifting. As of 2025, they are not endangered, & have been listed as Data Deficient on the IUCN Red List. Their short, upturned snouts make them very easily identifiable. They range from purple to yellow, to black They also lack a mane, meaning that their backs are bare.  The Mating Tactics, Strategies, Procedures, Cycles, & Practices Of The Short-Snouted Seahorse The Short-Snouted Seahorse mates via sexual reproduction. This species has 2 distinct sexes, & is not hermaphroditic. Their mating system is monogamous, meaning that they find one partner & stay with that partner. Their mating season is summer, & they typically meet off the eastern coast of Turkey. It is unclear what age they sexually mature at, but going off other species of a similar size, it should be between 5-7 months. After they mature, the males will work to attract a female. After they have successfully attracted a female, they will engage in an incredibly intricate mating dance. After the ritual is completed, they will wrap their tails around each other & engage. The female will eject her eggs into his brood pouch, where he will fertilize them. Then, the male will carry the children until they have been fully gestated. After that, the male will contract his muscles, & shoot out 100 to 200 babies. These babies are 15 millimeters when born, & resemble their parents completely. The parents will not care for the children once they are born though, & the children will swim off to have lives of their own. The majority of these babies will never reach adulthood, as they are defenseless against larger predators. The parents will continue this cycle at least one more time before they pass away. Strangely enough, it seems that they get higher fertility as they age.  The Distribution Of The Short- Snouted Seahorse The Short-Snouted Seahorse is Endemic to the Mediterranean, aside from a few small colonies in the River Thames, & a few near the Canary Islands. They tend to prefer waters with a higher salinity as well. Their preferred depth is about 77 meters (252.625 feet). They are often found in estuaries, rocky Reefs, & seagrass meadows. They are not migratory creatures, & usually stick to one area. This is why there may be certain localized behaviors that are only found within a certain region.  The Scientific Detailings Of Short-Snouted Seahorse The Slender sSea Horse is incredibly interesting for many reasons but the most well-known of them all is that the male gets pregnant & gives birth instead of the female. This is a trait that is only found in sea horses, pipefish, and sea dragons. This is due to an interesting attribute, the male has a pouch that the female releases her eggs into. In turn, the male fertilizes the eggs & once he is ready, an opening in his abdomen appears & through muscle contractions, he pushes out the juveniles. This, however, is not the only specialized thing about them. They have specialized structures within their skin cells that are called chromatophores. This allows them to change color to mimic their surroundings. They can do this seemingly at will. Octopi also have chromatophores. Sea horses lack teeth, instead having a long snout that they use to vacuum prey into their throats. This is why they can only consume very small amounts of food. They also lack a stomach & have an incredible digestive tract unique to sea horses. The way that they digest is that their snout sucks the food in & it disintegrates as it goes through the snout. Due to this, they have to eat continuously to live or they will die of starvation. The anal fin of them is also on the front of the sea horse, it is near the torso of the sea horse. The male pouch so to speak, is just below the anal fin. The gills of the sea horse are located on the side of their head & are shaped like a circle. It is quite noticeable. Their tail is square in bone structure. Their skeleton is a structure of interlocking bones. If you look at their entire body you will notice that all of it is built in a very similar way besides the skull. Their phylum is Chordata, meaning that they developed these 5 characteristics all species under the phylum of Chordata develop 5 similar characteristics either In adulthood or as juveniles. The characteristics that they develop include, a notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, endostyle or thyroid, pharyngeal Slits, & a post-anal tail. Their class is Actinopterygii, which means that they are ray-finned fish. This also means that their actinopterygian fin rays attach directly to the proximal or basal skeletal elements. Their order is Syngnathiformes. This is an order of ray-skinned fishes that includes trumpetfish & sea horses. A characteristic of being categorized under this order is that their bodies are narrow & surrounded by a series of bony rings. Another characteristic is their long tubular mouths. Their family is Syngathidae. This is a family of sea horses & pipefish. A characteristic of them is their elongated snout. Another characteristic is that they have a lack of pelvic fins. Their genus is Hippocampus. A feature that is found in all of them is their bone structure leaves them in an upright position.  Directories / Credits   Citation No. 1: “Short snouted seahorse (Hippocampus hippocampus)”, Written By Marisa Sabatini, Ruby Nash, & Susie Ballerstedt, & Published at an unknown date. Published by the Marine Life Information Network. Retrieval Date: September 18th, 2023. https://www.marlin.ac.uk/species/detail/1788 Citation No. 2: “Short-Nosed Seahorse”, Written By Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by Aquarium La Rochelle. Retrieval Date: September 18th, 2023. https://www.aquarium-larochelle.com/en/species-encyclopedia/short-snouted-seahorse/ Citation No. 3: “Short-snouted Seahorse”, Written by Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published By The Wild Life Trusts. Retrieval Date: September 18th, 2023. https://www.wildlifetrusts.org/wildlife-explorer/marine/fish-including-sharks-skates-and-rays/short-snouted-seahorse Citation No. 4: “Reproductive biology of the Short-snouted Seahorse, Hippocampus Hippocampus (Linnaeus, 1758) in the Eastern Black Sea of Turkey (Osteichthyes: Syngnathidae)”, Written By Burcu Taylan, Sule Gürken, & Ertan Taskavak, & Published on the 20th of May, 2020. Published By the Taylor & Francis Group. Retrieval Date: September 18th 2023.  https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09397140.2020.1757921?journalCode Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Marine Enthusiasts Podcast StemScribe Our Loyal Patrons P. R. Ochoa

A black & white drawing of doctor Meghan Holst. The first thing you notice about Dr. Meghan Holst is her enthusiasm. It radiates through her words like sunlight through shallow water, especially when discussing her eight-armed friends or toothy research subjects. An esteemed researcher on sharks and octopuses, she's made it her mission to transform how we see these often misunderstood creatures. You might know her voice from Sharkpedia, the hit podcast she co-hosts with fellow marine scientist Amani Weber-Schultz. But today, she's sitting down with us to share something different: her journey through the world of marine biology, her thoughts on diversity in marine science, and why she believes sharks deserve better PR. In this wide-ranging conversation, we explore everything from the hidden lives of octopuses to the future of ocean conservation. We've edited our chat for clarity, but we've kept the spark that makes Dr. Holst's perspective unique. Grab your diving gear – we're about to take the plunge. The Contents Of The Interview Questions About Her Passion:  1. What sparked your interest in marine biology? Unfortunately, I don't have a very direct answer, I've always been interested in creatures. Some of my earliest memories are of collecting bugs & fishing! I used to stop people from killing spiders, I've always been an advocate for creatures in general & their conservation. I've also always been interested in the novelty of the ocean. There is so much we don't know about the ocean, it's almost like outer space. 2. Do you have a person, place, or moment that helped spark your interest in marine biology? I'm not sure, however, I learned to fish as a young child. Eating fish, gutting them, & seeing their anatomy was always highly interesting to me. I was always a little scientist. 3. What attracts you to sharks & what is your favorite species of shark? I got lucky in that I had access to them. Once again I've always been interested in fish as well as fish biology, & sharks are really large cartilaginous fish. As soon as I had access to them, I jumped at the opportunity to research them. I'm very hesitant to choose one favorite species, I think I'd have to say that the Broadnose Sevengill Shark is my favorite. I did my PhD on Broadnose Sevengill Sharks, they are the center of where I started in Shark Biology. They are truly how I began as a Shark Biologist.  4. What attracts you to Science Communication? I feel that science communication is incredibly important. If we are doing science & not communicating it to the public, there will be a huge disconnect. Communicating science can also be very beneficial to scientists, it's amazing to see people get excited about what you're saying. Watching the light turn on in people's eyes is very fun. Questions About Her Career:  5. How did you end up going to University for marine biology & which universities did you go to before landing at UC Davis?  I went for my undergraduate degree at Oregon State University because originally I wanted to study whales. There is this wonderful laboratory there called the Hatfield Marine Science Center that is in Newport, Oregon, that is right on the ocean. It gives you direct access to study science, & to study large mammals. That is what drew me to Oregon State. In the end, I ended up switching paths from mammals to fish, which I am very grateful for. After leaving Oregon, I went to San Francisco State University for my Master's Degree, where I ended up studying Octopi.  6. What inspired you to found the Minorities in Zoo & Aquarium Science organization, & what programs does it have? I spent the first two decades of my career working in Aquariums. When I left Oregon State University after I finished my undergraduate, I worked as an aquarist. It's a pretty predominantly white field in my opinion, & with the way that a lot of internships are structured, you have to do lots of free work before getting a job. Even when you do get into a position that pays, the pay is not very sustainable. At one point I considered leaving Aquarium Sciences to become a teacher because if I were a teacher, I would likely be working the same amount yet earning much more money. This is fairly prevalent in aquariums across the United States. Although it is difficult for everyone, I saw that it was disproportionately affecting minorities, & that ethnic as well as racial minorities were facing many additional challenges. I don't wish to discourage readers from following this career path, it is gradually getting better, however, this is what sparked my idea for Minorities in Aquarium & Zoo Sciences. I am not an ethnic or racial minority, I would like to be very transparent about that, I simply saw a very frustrating issue.  My co-founder Jenny Jansen, who is also the president of the organization, is Chinese American. So before starting, I had gone to Jenny & told her what I was observing in our industry, & asked her if I was correct in that it was disproportionately impacting people of color. She agreed that it was, which led to the birth of the organization.  Although I would say that Aquarium Sciences are a predominantly female field, leadership roles are often male, & most often are not people of color. Ultimately, we launched Minorities in Aquarium & Zoo Sciences to try & uplift as well as amplify people of color because they are so disproportionately impacted by the financial impacts of getting into this field. As for the programs we currently have, I'm quite proud of one in particular. The acronym for it is AMLAZ, which stands for Advancing Minority Leadership in Aquariums & Zoos. The program is to help fund mid-level leaders that are people of colour in these sciences to go through leadership programs to help them advance their skills & uplift their communities. We also offer scholarships for other programs, if you are a person of colour & are doing an unpaid internship, we can help you get funding for living expenses covered when the institution isn't able to do so. Our mission is not only to retain the diversity that we currently have but ultimately to increase it. Quite frankly, we would like to not be needed at some point, & for the industry to catch up.  7. What did you do in your capacity as a Senior Biologist & Aquarist for Aquariums?  As I mentioned before, I worked as an Aquarist for the first 2 decades or so of my career. When I got out of my bachelor's degree, I didn't exactly know what to do. I thought that I would be one of those people who get out of their undergraduate & go straight to their Master's Degree & had science figured out, however when I got out of my undergraduate, I didn't know what I could do for my master's degree.  I ended up being incredibly fortunate & finding a job in Aquarium Sciences, & fell in love with it. As an intern, I would often go scuba diving to help with conservation surveys. On the same day, I would manage a touch pool, & give talks about the conservation research that we were doing. That was the beginning of my work in Science Communication, it was amazing. I found it incredibly fulfilling to work at an aquarium where I could do science, support science, & lead science, & in the same breath make it accessible to the public! After a while, I began at an aquarium in Oregon, taking care of Octopi. I started asking all these questions about their behavior that people didn't necessarily have the answer to, which pushed me further into the field. My curiosity deepened, & my boss at the time asked me to evaluate if it was human interactions were negative or positive, to make sure that we were respecting their boundaries.  After moving to California, I had this assessment that I had made in Oregon, & expanded on it at my new job. I began to become curious as to what was going on at a cellular level with these animals, & how it affected their behavior. That ultimately started my Master's Project, & had me work as a full-time aquarist during my master's degree. 8. What did you do in your capacity as a Marine Biological Researcher with Oregon State University in the Computational Mechanics & Design Laboratory? That was an odd position that I got while studying for my undergraduate degree. That laboratory is an engineering laboratory that needed a marine biologist to help them in a whale-tagging project. I went to Oregon State originally intending to be a whale researcher, & they wanted someone on the biological side of things who could study the differences in blubber between different groups of whales, & then explain how that would affect the way that the tag is implanted. Interestingly, I met my then-boyfriend, now husband there! He was working on the mechanical side of things studying how to get the tags to function properly. 9. How did you gain an interest in Scuba Diving, & what did you do in your capacity as a Divemaster? When I went to Oregon State, they had a program where you could take a class to learn Scuba Diving from a certified diver. I knew that I would likely end up needing the skill to properly do research, so I took the course & got the certification. I got to know the course instructor extremely well, & trained to become a diver master alongside him. I ended up helping him instruct some of his classes, & going out into the ocean to help get people certified. It was an amazing experience, so I've been able to use diving in my career ever since then. 10. What is the most fulfilling or proudest moment in your career thus far? Some of my best moments have been when I see other people learning & getting access to things. I worked incredibly hard for a very long time to gain access to marine science, & it was not easy. My proudest moments are generally when I help other people gain access to science. For example, when I take other people on the boat with me to learn how to do shark fishing to support shark science, it is extremely fulfilling to watch them get excited & realize that they can get close to sharks.  To not only learn about these animals but to watch other people learn about these animals, makes me very excited! It is sort of addicting. Overall, I would have to say that my proudest moment was watching one of the undergraduate students studying under me gradually learn more about shark science, write their thesis, & eventually work with me.  11. What is the biggest challenge or hurdle that you have faced in your career thus far? Quite frankly, my biggest challenge is other people not wanting me or other groups of people in this field. It is not always a welcoming field, although I do feel that is gradually changing. I have faced my fair share of exclusion & hardship, simply existing in the field.  The hardest part is the people who will randomly take action against your ability to do science. I do not completely understand the motivation behind that, it doesn’t exactly make sense to me.  I distinctly remember that as an undergrad, my biology professor took me aside & told me to change my degree, because I would never be successful in biology. People will make you feel as if you don’t have the right to be here, or as if you don’t belong, which has driven me to be as inclusive as possible. I try to share as much as possible & be as inclusive as possible. I’m grateful that that’s how I have come out the other side as opposed to being bitter about it, & perpetuating that cycle of exclusion. 12. Do you have any words for new marine biologists entering the field? Take the opportunities you can, they don’t often come. If there is anything that you can do, take it. Say yes as much as possible. The other thing that I would like to say is, at the same time, do not lose yourself in that process. It may feel like you need to sacrifice your soul for any opportunity, however, that isn’t true. As you are getting into the field, people may attempt to take advantage of you. Some professors are simply looking for bodies to fill roles, & they may not have your best interest in mind. Always listen to your gut & put yourself first, as no one else is going to. 13. How do you feel about the current public perception of sharks as menacing beasts, & do you wish to change it? I feel as if that is gradually changing thankfully. They aren’t these man-eating beasts that people seem to think that they are. One of my favorite statistics is that you are more likely to get killed by a vending machine than you are a shark. The likelihood is so low. Overall, I think that it is getting better, however there is still room to grow. Questions About Her Research:  14. How many research projects have you been involved in & what was your first research project? The first research project that I was a part of was the whale tagging project at Oregon State University, & the first time leading research was during my Master’s Degree when I made the octopus assessment.  15. What research are you currently conducting at the UC Davis School of Veterinary Sciences? I am currently what is called a Postdoctoral Fellow, people call it a post-doc for short. A Post-Doc is a temporary position people usually do after their P.hD, as most universities will not hire you immediately after you have finished your P.hD. A post-doc helps you gain more experience, & do your research while having something to fall back on. Getting a post-doc is entirely dependent on funding. I'm studying freshwater fish in this position, as that is where funding was. In this project, the leading professor wanted to hire somebody to lead a project looking for contaminants in the San Francisco Bay estuary, & I studied sharks in San Francisco Bay which is very close. I work very closely with a toxicologist looking at how pollution affects sharks & fish in the bay. Questions About Her Science Communication & Outreach: 16. How did you begin your Sharkpedia podcast & when did you begin it? We began it in 2021, my co-host Amani Weber-Schultz & I, I’m not even entirely sure how we came up with the idea! I do remember that I was in a Science Communication Class for my P.hd, & part of it was that we had to come up with a science communication project.  I had always been interested in the notion of starting a podcast, however I was very intimidated by it. I sort of used the excuse of it being for class as a reason to try, & see if my friend would be willing to help me. It was a very selfish, very amazing way to meet other scientists in the field. The point of Sharkpedia is that we have scientists come on & talk about how they conduct research, what led to it, & what struggles they had doing the science. That was a very excellent way for both my co-host & I, who were both P.hd students at the time, to learn a lot about the field.  Many great collaborations came out of it, and several people on the podcast ended up collaborating with me on research & other things. It was the perfect project to do as P.hd students. We unfortunately have had a small hiatus as Amani is at the end of her P.hd right now & she is grinding away. We are planning to come back this next year thankfully! It is a great way to connect with other scientists, & share science with other people. 17. Who is your co-host for the Sharkpedia podcast? Amani Weber-Schultz is a friend of mine, she volunteered with me once when I was working as an Aquarist. She co-founded Minorities In Shark Sciences which helped inspire me to start Minorities in Aquarium & Zoo Sciences. She is an incredible human, I am inspired by her all the time. She has studied the mechanics of dermo denticles, which are the scales on Sharks, quite extensively. She’s Awesome! 18. Have you considered doing a video version of the podcast or an animated version of the podcast? We have not considered an animated version of the podcast or a video portion, mostly because it is more editing on our part.  19. Do you have any final questions about sharks, science communication, or marine biology in general? If you are passionate & you want to be in this field, don’t let anyone tell you that don’t belong here. Directories / Credits https://meghanholst.weebly.com/ https://miazs.org/ Strategic Partnerships  Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Marine Enthusiasts Podcast StemScribe Our Loyal Patrons P. R. Ochoa

This is a beautiful photograph of Lahaina's Beaches before the catastrophic wildfire storm in 2023. Credit to Mlenny Photography. Lahaina is a beautiful town on the western end of the island of Maui. Maui is one of the 8 islands of Hawaii. The island of Maui is approximately 2,132.00 Nautical Miles (2453.462 miles or 3948.464 kilometers), from mainland America, specifically California. Lahaina has a fascinating history, which can still be seen in the town today. Lahaina is a popular resort town, as its front street was extremely famous for its jewelry & clothing lines. They were also famous for their Wharf which is right next to the water. Unfortunately, due to the catastrophic wildfires of 2023, the Wharf, & their beautiful stores, were reduced to nothing but Ash. This has greatly affected the tourism in the town as well, which is terrible as Lahaina’s main sector is tourism. The town is also a prime location for fishing, as they are extremely biodiverse. Many fishing charters depart from their port each day, to Lanai, & other areas around Maui. Lahaina’s waters have beautiful coral reefs that creep up onto the shore. Along every beach, dead coral lines the sand, & sprawling reefs can be seen very clearly in the water. Lahaina has rather peaceful waters, that are usually very calm. The coral reefs cause the waves of Lahaina to be rather quiet, though occasionally these waves may become rather intense. Lahaina is located on the western-central side of Maui, & is also a popular area of transit for its Maui-Lana’i passenger ferry. Lanai also has a unique mix of marine terrain, with everything from seagrass to coral, to rocky coves. Since Lahaina has an extreme proximity to Lanai, animals frequently migrate back & forth to get the most diverse access to prey. In this article, we will discuss the Salinity, Tides, Temperatures, & Marine Geography, of the island, the most prominent ecosystems of the island, The documented marine flora & Fauna, & Finally, & how ocean acidification has affected the island. With that being said, let us delve into the oceans surrounding  Lahaina, Maui.  The Tides, Temperatures, Salinity, Marine Geography, & Basic Information Of The Oceans Surrounding Lahaina Lahaina rests in the Pacific Ocean, which means it most certainly has a lower salinity level than the Caribbean. The salinity around Lahina has been estimated at approximately 32.9 parts per thousand. Compared to the average salinity of the water in the central Pacific 35 parts per thousand, Lahaina’s salinity is shockingly low. Salinity is measured in 1,000-gram increments of water. For every 1000 grams of water, there will be a certain number of grams that are pure salt. This is the way that salinity is currently measured. There are no external factors currently that seem to be affecting the salinity either. The tidal charts for Lahaina can be found on a multitude of websites, a few of which are: https://www.usharbors.com , https://www.tideschart.com , and Https://tides4fishing.com . The tides in Lahaina usually don’t get over 3.34 feet, however, they can on occasion reach higher heights. The water temperatures unfortunately are not listed on those sites, but they are listed on these: https://seatemperature.net , https://seatemperature.info , https://www.watertemperature.net , https://www.watertemp.org , & finally, https://www.seatemperature.org . The average annual water temperature is approximately 25.7° Celsius (78.26 Fahrenheit). A wetsuit is not required to comfortably swim in Lahaina, & many swim in normal swimsuits. Riptide around Lahaina is generally not a threat, because the coral reefs cause the waves to be smaller. Currents around Lahaina are also not a big issue, because the coral provides a natural barrier. Lahaina is extremely popular for swimming, kayaking, & fishing. Lahaina is extremely safe for these activities as well, as it is not polluted at all. Snorkeling is also extremely popular & in Lahaina, as the coral reefs make for magnificent scenery. The deepest oceanic point within 5 nautical miles (5.7539 miles or 9.26 kilometers), is approximately 719.8 feet (219.39504 meters) deep. It is unclear how close exactly the nearest marine protected area is, as the area is not clearly outlined on any maps. The oceanic terrain around Lahaina primarily consists of mud, gravel, rock, sand, & coral. There is ongoing government research around Lahaina waters, but it is mostly just to monitor the marine species, & ecosystems.  The Most Prominent Marine Ecosystems Of Lahaina Ecosystem No. 1: Fringing Coral Reefs Fringing Coral Reefs are incredibly important to Lahaina’s marine ecosystem. These reefs usually are on the seafloor no further than 257.5459 feet (78.5 meters) deep. These reefs can be in shallow waters or deep sea. Many creatures such as whales, dolphins, rays, fish, & mollusks can be found in these ecosystems. By far, this type of ecosystem is the most biologically diverse & biologically active of Lahaina. The reason for this is simply that coral reefs have lots of prey, nutrients, & areas to hide. Additionally, coral reefs are paid particularly close attention to by conservationists as they provide a natural barrier against large waves, that could potentially damage coastal communities. The specific kind of coral reef found off the coast of Lahaina is known as a fringing coral reef, because it fringes along the shoreline, & juts up directly against the coast. There are 4 primary types of coral found off the coast of Lahaina, those coral being Lobe Coral, Cauliflower Coral, Rice Coral, & Finger Coral, all being warm water corals. Lobe coral is found from depths of 10 to 45 feet (3.048 to 13.716 meters) deep, & is usually a tan, green, or yellow color. Cauliflower Coral is the most common coral found in shallower reefs less than 10 feet (3.048 feet) deep, & is usually a tan or pink color. Rice Coral is usually found in shallower environments, ranging from 1 to 4 meters (3.28084 to 13.1234 feet)deep. It takes on a tan to blue color, & one species of Rice Coral, the Blue Rice Coral, is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. Lastly, finger coral lives at shallow depths to 100 feet (30.48 meters) deep, & is brownish yellow color.  Ecosystem No. 2: Rocky Reefs Rocky reefs are very similar to Coral reefs, but they just don’t have coral. They usually have interesting rock formations, that work similarly to holes in coral, in that they both protect from predators. These rocky reefs are usually less biodiverse though, & are usually in deeper areas of the ocean. Ecosystem No. 3: Coves & Rocky Pools Coves & Rocky tide pools are extremely common throughout Lahaina. Rocky Pools usually consist of coastal rocky areas, that fill up with water at high tide. These areas are not always filled with water, which provides access to more resources for certain animals. These areas are usually filled up with crustaceans, & bivalves. The reason for this is, that with the tide new nutrients can come in & out repeatedly like clockwork.  The Most Prominent Marine Flora Of Lahaina There are currently 2 known species of seagrass, those species being Halophila Hawaiiana (Hawaiian Seagrass), & Halophila decipiens (Paddle Grass). These are both found in underwater meadows around Hawaii. Hawaiian Seagrass is found right up against the coast, while Paddle Grass is found at least 100 feet deep. Hawaiian seagrass is approximately is unfortunately being threatened by an invasive species of algae, which is causing depletion. Hawaiian seagrass takes on a bright light green color, & is has blades only an inch long. Paddle Grass green & white ombré appearance, & has blades approximately 1.25 centimeters (0.492126 inches) long. Unfortunately, we could not confirm if certain species were found specifically in Lahaina, or if they were found in other parts of Maui, as the majority of publishers don’t specify.  The Most Prominent Marine Fauna Of Lahaina Lahaina has an interesting clash of marine species, as it is near the center of all the Hawaiian Islands. Many creatures will migrate from Lanai to Maui, as well as migrating to the rest of the Hawaiian islands. This makes it so that some creatures will not have a year-round residency on the island. This makes it rather hard to keep track of which animals are found around Maui, & which animals aren’t. They do this because Maui has a wide variety of ecosystems all very close to one another, which offers a unique contrast. Due to the diversity of this region, divers flock to this region to see it in person, before can’t anymore. Unfortunately, Lahaina’s coral reefs are in danger due to ocean acidification, & general rising temperatures. Many conservationists are working to prevent coral from bleaching, & to protect the seagrass species as well. Aside from the Blue Rice Coral, & the Hawaiian Monk Seal. There are no known endemic marine species to Maui. Now, for this article, we will not include nudibranchs, sea slugs, sea snails, planktons, lichens, sea worms, or sea urchins, as there are just too many of them. Additionally, we will only be listing animals that have been seen within the last 2 years. With that being said, the list of all the most prominent species currently found around Lahaina are as follows: Megaptera Novaeangliae (Humpback Whale), Neomonachus Schauinslandi (Hawaiian Monk Seal), Stenella Longirostris (Spinner Dolphin), Tursiops Truncatus (Common Bottlenose Dolphin), Stenella Attenuata (Pantropical Spotted Dolphin), Rhinecanthus Rectangulus (Wedgetail Triggerfish), Acanthurus Triostegus (Convict Tang), Thalossoma Duperrey (Saddle Wrasse), Zanclus Corntus (Moorish Idol), Naso Lituratus (Pacific Orange-Spine Unicornfish), Zebrasoma Flavscens (Yellow Tang), Melichthys Niger (Black Triggerfish), Acanthurus Nigrofuscus (Dusky Sturgeonfish), Octopus Cyancea (Hawaiian Day Octopus), Chataedon Ornatissimus (Orange Butterflyfish), Canthigaster Jactator (Hawaiian Spotted Toby), Abudefduf Sordidus (Blackspot Sergeant), Parupenus Miltifasciatus (Manybar Goatfish), Mulliodichthys Flavolineatus (Yellowstripe Goatfish), Ostracion Meleagris (Spotted Boxfish), Aulostomus Chinensis (Pacific Trumpetfish), Fistularia Commersonii (Blue-spotted Cornetfish), Gymnothorax Meleagris (White-mouth Moray), Chaetodon Lunula (Raccoon Butterflyfish), Chataedon Quadrimaculatus (Four-spot Butterflyfish), Chaetodon Auriga (Threadfin Butterflyfish), Melichthys Vidua (Pinktail Triggerfish), Naso Unicornis (Bluespine Unicorn Fish), Gomphosus Varius (Bird Wrasse), Istiblennius Zebra (Zebra Blenny), Caranx Melampygus (Bluefin Trevally), Acanthurus Olivaceus (Orange Blotch Surgeonfish), Cantherhines Dumerilii (Barred Filefish), & finally Scarus Rubroviolaceus (Redlip Parrotfish). There are hundreds of other species, but for this article, we cannot list them all. All species can be found listed on https://www.inaturalist.org , by following this link.  How Ocean Acidification Is Affecting Lahaina’s Coral Reefs Lahaina is having issues with ocean acidification, in that it is causing the coral to become stressed out & then bleach. After coral bleaches, it is extremely hard to cause it to recover naturally. If the coral reefs of Lahaina disappear, the natural wave protection will cease & swimming will become more hazardous for humans. Additionally, many creatures will no longer have a natural habitat, & become endangered or possibly extinct.  Ocean acidification is caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.  Atmospheric carbon dioxide levels have increased, largely because of human-caused burning of fossil fuels, & deforestation, for the past 150 years.  When carbon dioxide contacts sea water, it forms carbonic acid.  Carbonic acid gives off positive H+ ions, which causes increased oceanic H+ concentrations & decreased oceanic Ph. Directories / Credits  Citation No. 1: “Salinity Forecast: Hawai’i”,  Written by Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published By The Pacific Islands Ocean Observing System. Retrieval Date: September 12th, 2023.  https://www.pacioos.hawaii.edu/water/model-salinity-hawaii/ Citation No. 2: “The Hawaiian Islands Seagrass”, Written By Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by the National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration. Retrieval Date: September 12th, 2023.  https://www.habitat.noaa.gov/protection/wetlands/wild-in-our-wetlands/wetlandpage.html?29 Citation No. 3: “Coastal Plants Of Hawaii: HAWAII - ENDEMIC”, Written By Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published By Marine Life Photography. Retrieval Date: September 12th, 2023.  https://www.marinelifephotography.com/marine/plants/plants.htm Citation No. 4: “Seagrass Restoration Initiative”, Written By Unknown & Published at an Unknown date. Published by Mālama Maunalua. Retrieval Date: September 12th, 2023.  https://www.malamamaunalua.org/habitat-restoration-program/seagrass-restoration-initiative/ Citation No. 5: “Corals Of Maui”, Written by Unknown & Published on October 18th, 2017. Published by the Hawaii Ocean Project. Retrieval Date: September 12th, 2023.  https://hawaiioceanproject.com/corals-of-maui/ Citation No. 6: “Maui, HI, US”, Written by INaturalist, & Published at varying Dates. Published by INatrualist. Retrieval Date: September 12th, 2023.  https://www.inaturalist.org/places/maui-island#taxon=47178 Strategic Partnerships  Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Marine Enthusiasts Podcast StemScribe Our Loyal Patrons P. R. Ochoa

An aerial drone photograph of Lahaina, pre-2023 firestorm—Credit to Christian Crook. Picture a place where Hawaiian kings once walked, where whaling ships crowded the harbor, and where one of the world's largest banyan trees spread its branches across an entire city block. This was Lahaina — a town that has witnessed the sweep of Hawaiian history from royal capital to tourist haven and now stands at the threshold of its greatest challenge. Lahaina is a beautiful town on the western end of the island of Maui, one of the eight islands of Hawaii. The island of Maui is approximately 2,132.00 Nautical Miles (2453.462 miles or 3948.464 kilometers), from mainland America, specifically California. Lahaina has a fascinating history, which can still be seen in the town today. Lahaina was up until recently a popular resort town, as its front street was popular for its beautiful jewelry & coastal clothing lines. They were also famous for their elaborate Wharf, which was abundant with shopping centers & eateries, & sat very close to the water. Devastatingly, due to the catastrophic wildfires of 2023, the wharf, front street, & many of the beautiful historic buildings were reduced to nothing but ash & smoke. The town is also a prime location for fishing, as they are extremely biodiverse. Many fishing charters depart from their port each day, to Lanai, & other areas around Maui. Lahaina’s waters have beautiful coral reefs that creep up onto the shore. Along every beach, dead coral lines the sand, & sprawling reefs can be seen very clearly in the water. Lahaina’s current town website is https://lahainatown.com , where information about the town can be accessed with ease. Lahaina was once briefly the capital of Hawaii, which caused many buildings to be added, thus making the historical district very large. The entire town of Lahaina is built right on the water so the average elevation is only about 3 feet (0.9144 meters). In the 2020 Population Census, Lahaina had a population of 13,216, but that unfortunately declined massively due to the catastrophic Maui Wild Fires of 2023. The next population census is in 2030, so hopefully by that point, the population will have recovered. In this article, we will discuss the Documented History Of Lahaina, the Aboriginals of Lahaina, the Most Destructive Man-made & Natural Disasters of Lahaina, & finally the Economic state of Lahaina. With that being said, let us delve into the tropical archives of Lahaina.  The Documented History Of Lahaina, Maui Before The Unification Of The Kingdom Of Hawaii Polynesian Settlers from the Marquesas first arrived on the island sometime between 400 A.D & 450 A.D. The last large wave of settlers arrived from Tahiti in about 700 A.D.  After The Unification Of The Kingdom Of Hawaii Events From The 19th Century Lahaina was only formally built after the Kingdom Unified, & was made the kingdom's shining capital in 1802, by King Kamehameha the First. He built a large brick palace there, government buildings, & many residential buildings to help industrialize the town. In 1810, King Kamehameha United all of the Kingdom Of Hawaii, & kept the sun-drenched coastal town of Lahaina as its capital. By this point Lahaina had become a major city for whaling & fishing, so it saw about 400 ships in the harbor at once almost every day. King Kamehameha decided that Lahaina should become a larger port, so he allowed missionaries to come into Lahaina. In 1820, the first protestant missionaries arrived on the island. These missionaries opened the first high school, made the first printing press on the island, introduced new fashion styles, & introduced the writing system. Unfortunately, while traveling to London with his wife, King Kamehameha The II died of measles. His younger brother, despite being only 11 years of age, was made king. In 1831, Maui’s Lahainaluna secondary school was opened, making it the oldest school in Hawaii, & the oldest school in the western USA. It was opened by Protestant Missionaries. It is still open to this day, as it managed to survive the Maui Wild Fires. The land on which it was built was given by the Chiefess Kalakua Hoapiliwahine. The school was originally built as a boarding school for young men to be taught promising talents as well as trades. Today, it remains one of the few public boarding schools in the U.S.A. In 1834, the Baldwin house was built, which is the oldest house built in Lahaina. Now, by 1840, Lahaina’s Whaling industry was booming, & their general fishing industry was growing rapidly. Without afety precuations such as a lighthouse, a disaster would have have been imminent. For this reason, the Lahaina lighthouse was built in 1840, making it the oldest lighthouse in the Pacific. When it was unveiled it was 9 feet tall, with a lamp lit with whale oil. In 1853, the Old Lahaina Prison Was built, also called Hale Pa’ahao. It was used to jail peace-violating soldiers, & was built partially of coral. In 1854, King Kamehameha III passed away, & his nephew, Alexander Liholiho, assumed the throne, & became King Kamehameha IV. In 1858, the beautiful Lahaina Courthouse was constructed. It, unfortunately, no longer stands, as its roof collapsed during the cataclysmic Maui Wildfires. Though, a few walls still stand, reminders of the monument that once was. As Lahaina grew, the economy was diversifying away from just whaling. One big example of this is the Pioneer Mill Company. The Pioneer Mill Company was established in 1860, as the first commercial sugar plantation in Lahaina. Soon after, in 1863, King Kamehameha passed away at age 29, & his older brother, Lot Kapuaiwa, assumed the throne. 1863 saw a massive surge in leprosy cases for Maui, a disease known to cause nerve damage, disfiguration, & death. To combat this horrible epidemic, King Kamehameha V enacted an isolation law, forcing people to arrested, hospitalized, & shipped to a small isolated island known as Kalaupapa. The first batch of patients sent to this island stayed there for 7 whole years. This law remained in effect until 1969, over 106 years later. In 1872, King Kapuaiwa passed away, & was the last king to be a direct descendant of the great King Kamehameha. He died without having any remaining family or producing an heir. The famous Banyan Tree of Lahaina was planted soon after he died in 1873. When it was planted, it was a mere 8 feet (2.4384 meters) tall, but now it is over 60 feet (18.288 feet) tall & covered an entire city block. Since King Kapuaiwa didn’t leave an heir, it was up to the election to choose the next king. William Charles Lunalilo was elected as the King Of Hawaii, & did not stay long in office. After amending the constitution, disbanding the army, & making it so that you didn’t need property to vote, he promptly passed away in 1874 of Tuberculosis. Although he had lost to King Lunalilo just a year before, King Kalakaua assumed the throne. Due to his passion for luxury, parties, music, & festivities in general, he had a massive palace built as his primary residence. This palace, the Lolani Palace, cost approximately 350,000 U.S.D. In 1891, King Kalakaua passed away after sailing to San Francisco for Treatment. His famous & extremely compelling last words were “Tell my people I tried”. After his death, his sister Queen Liluokalani assumed the throne. She was the last monarch of Hawaii. She was extremely opposed to U.S. annexation, & fought vigorously against it. She ultimately could not resist U.S. annexation, & in 1900, Hawaii became a U.S. territory.  After Unification With The United States Of America   Events From The 1900’s Hawaii officially became a U.S. territory in 1900, & would remain that way until 1959, when it officially became a U.S. state. In 1998, the historical Lahaina Courthouse was finally restored. Before the Maui Wildfires of 2023, it was home to the Lahaina Historical Museum. The majority of the documents were saved, as they were saved in online copies. However, the majority of the artifacts were destroyed in the fire.  The Aboriginals Of Lahaina, Hawaii Unfortunately, we could not find information on the Aboriginals of Lahaina specifically.  The Most Destructive Man-Caused & Natural Disasters To Affect Maui No. 1: The Maui Wildfires Of 2023 The Maui Wildfires were a catastrophic “fire hurricane”, that occurred in 2023. The fire first broke out on August 8th, & was not contained until September 3rd. The cause of the fire is unclear, but it is believed to be a downed power line. These wildfires caused approximately 102 deaths, 20 recorded injuries, 388 disappearances, & 5.52 Billion USD in damage at the time of publishing. Approximately 2,200 buildings were destroyed, with 86% of them being residential. Lahaina itself is 9.92 square miles, & 3.4 square miles were burned in the fire. That means that 34.27% of Lahaina was burnt. The fire displaced at least 11,000 people, & left many with nothing to return to. The numbers tell only part of the story, as numbers can't capture the depth of what was lost — generations of history, family homes, & pieces of Hawaiian culture that can never be replaced. Lahaina’s historical Front Street, Heritage Museum, Wharf, & Harbour were reduced to nothing but ash, & coral. It has been, without a doubt, the most destructive wildfire in the last century, & undoubtedly the worst disaster Lahaina has been faced with. No. 2: Hurricane Dora Hurricane Dora was a Category 4 hurricane that lasted from July 29th to August 21st. It brought winds of 145 miles per hour near Hawaii, which exacerbated the firestorm. Due to the high winds, the fire spread much quicker, & much further than it normally would have. It did not pass by Maui directly, so no casualties were caused by it directly. The Economic State Of Lahaina, Maui The economic state of Lahaina is currently terrible. Before the wildfires, Lahaina had a sprawling tourism, & fashion industry. Lahaina was close to the popular resort area of Kaanapali, giving it a massive influx of traffic. Since the majority of real estate, & markets have been destroyed in Lahaina, we cannot accurately calculate the cost of living or the average cost of real estate.  Directories / Credits Citation No. 1: “Lahaina Timeline”, Written By Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by the Government Of Lahaina. Retrieval Date: September 14th, 2023.  https://lahainatown.com/lahaina-history.php Citation No. 2: “Here are the names of those missing on Maui. Officials want you to read everyone.”, Written by Alisha Ebrahimji, & Published at 2:15 PM EDT, on August 25th, 2023. Published by CNN. Retrieval: September 14th, 2023.  https://amp.cnn.com/cnn/2023/08/25/us/maui-missing-people-list-lahaina-wildfire/index.html Strategic Partnerships  Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Marine Enthusiasts Podcast StemScribe Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

A Charcoal Portrait Of Johan Hjort. This article is a part of our collection known as the Marine Hall Of Distinction. In this special collection, we will discuss marine biologists who we feel have served marine biology & oceanography the most. We do this in order to commemorate these marine biologists & to show gratitude for everything they have contributed to our oceans. Today’s marine biologist, is Johan Hjort, a Norwegian Marine Biologist & Marine Scientist. He is well known for his work regarding fisheries, scientific discovery, & his place in founding the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea.  In this article, we are going to delve into his formative years & education, his career & later life, & his achievements, accomplishments, awards, & honorables. With that being said, let us delve into the life & career of Johan Hjort.  His Formative Years & Education  Johan Hjort was born on February 18th, 1869, in Oslo, Norway. He was born to Johan S. A. Hjort, an accomplished professor in ophthalmology, & Elizabeth Falsen, of the Dano-Norwegian Noble Falsen Family. He had at least one sibling, Alf Hjort, who went on to become a distinguished electrical engineer. As a young man, he had a fascination with the natural world, which inspired him to go down the career path he ended up on. Although his true desires were to study animals & the natural world, his father wished for him to follow in his footsteps & become a doctor. Hjort began taking classes in medicine at the University of Oslo, however he felt unsatisfied & unfulfilled. His fascination for animals was incredibly strong, & eventually, he left, & went to the University of Munich to study Zoology. After graduating, he briefly worked at the Stazione Zoologica in Southern Italy, studying Botryllus tunicates. These tunicates would form the basis for his thesis. Upon leaving Italy, he returned to Munich & got his P.hd in 1892.  His Career & Later Life Upon earning his doctorate he returned to Norway & worked as the curator of a museum for a while, while simultaneously developing courses.  In 1894, he succeeded fellow marine biologist Georg O. Sars as a Research Fellow studying Fisheries. However, he quickly left the possession, as he had a desire to learn more about chemical oceanography. This desire led him to the University of Germany, where he stayed for a year, before moving back to Norway in 1897 to work at the Marine Biological Station at Oslo. Hjort soon began working with a variety of scientists & fisheries researchers such as C. G. Johannes Petersen, to study fish stocks in the shallow waters of Denmark. Petersen had devised an interesting trawling system for other research missions, however, it wouldn’t work as well for the soft-bottomed Norwegian fjords. Hjort adapted it successfully, & upon using it on an expedition in 1898, discovered plentiful stocks of Pandalus borealis, a species of Deep Sea Prawn. This was an incredibly important event, as it introduced a new kind of plentiful seafood to the region. The Norwegian government was very interested in this, & Hjort convinced them to fund the building of a deep-sea fisheries research vessel. He named the vessel Micheal Sars, after a marine zoologist. It was officially completed in 1900.  Hjort soon became the director of the Norwegian Institute of Marine Research in Bergen, Norway, & stayed in that position for 16 years. During this time, he conducted many research expeditions, venturing as far as Spitsbergen & Jan Mayen. A fellow Norwegian marine biologist had recently discovered that the eggs of certain commercially important fish would move naturally, & thus, would not be affected negatively by deep-sea trawling. Hjort found this information to be highly intriguing, & launched an expedition aboard the Micheal Sars research vessel to study the abundance of cod eggs in the North Atlantic. On this mission, he realized that areas with more plentiful eggs would usually have more existing plentiful fish stocks. This would lead many Norwegian Fishermen to come to these areas, & caused Norway to become one of the most profitable fishing grounds for Cod in Europe.  Around this time, he assisted in the founding of the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea, more commonly known as ICES. He served as the Norwegian Delegate to ICES from 1908 to 1938. He was elected president that year, & kept that position until his unfortunate death. In 1909, Scottish-Canadian Oceanographer John Murray, who we have discussed in a previous article, proposed a four-month expedition on the Micheal Sars research Vessel with Hjort as the Scientific Commander. He offered to fund the entire voyage, & Hjort accepted. They spent the winter months of late 1909 & early 1910 preparing the ship for the voyage, & set sail in April of that year. They traveled approximately 11,500 miles, & visited at least 116 research stations.  The results of the expedition were published in the book “The Depths of The Ocean”, 1912, which has since become one of the most popular scientific books amongst marine biologists.  After much research, in 1914, he published one of his most cited works, “Fluctuations in the Great Fisheries of Northern Europe”. In the same year, he conducted research on the Gulf of Saint Lawrence in Canada, & published the results in a small book. The book had a very small circulation, & very few copies exist modernly. His interest in fish populations led to him becoming concerned about overfishing, which he was one of the first people to consider. To combat this, he began petitioning the Norwegian Government to pass legislation that would limit whaling. Parliament listened, & soon passed legislation to limit commercial whaling.  Hjort negotiated foreign relations between England & Norway during the First World War regarding fish-purchasing agreements. He did this with the intention of it being made public, however, the Norwegian Foreign Minister decided otherwise. Distraught & mildly disappointed, Hjort resigned from most of his positions in Norway, & spent the next few years moving between Denmark & England. His thirst for knowledge led him to the Department of Physiology & Zoology at Cambridge University, where he was often seen taking notes during lectures. He would return to Oslo in 1921, to become a professor. He visited New England in 1936 to receive an honorary degree from Harvard University, & while visiting, he realized how similar the waters of New England were to the waters of Atlantic Norway. Hjort commissioned a research vessel to do trawling, & found an abundance of Shrimp. This caused shrimp fisheries to pop up along the Eastern United States, which were incredibly profitable.  Unfortunately, he passed away on October 7th, 1948, at the age of 79. He was married twice, with his first wife being Wanda von der Marswitz, & his second wife being Constance Gran. He had 2 sons & 2 daughters from his first wife, & no children from his second wife. He dedicated his life to marine life & zoology, & contributions to each field will not be forgotten.  His Achievements, Accomplishments, Awards, & Honorables For his scientific efforts, he has had many things named in his honor, including an oceanic trench, a species of squid, a mountain range, & a street in Bergen, Norway.  He single-handedly increased fisheries worldwide & understanding of how fish stocks naturally fluctuate. He has published multiple books that have had an incredible impact, a few of which are The Unity Of Science, 1921, & The Depths Of The Ocean, 1912.  He received multiple honorary degrees from many universities, including Harvard & Cambridge. He has received many awards, including an Alexander Agassiz Award.  He has received many honors, including the Order of St. Olav, & the Fellowship of the Royal Society. Directories / Credits Citation No. 1: “Johan Hjort superhero ‘avenger’ of fisheries research and the man who showed Forrest Gump how to go shrimpin'”, Written by Ibon Cancio, & Published on May 31st, 2021. Published by the European Marine Biological Resource Center. Retrieval Date: October 15th, 2024. https://www.embrc.eu/newsroom/news/johan-hjort-superhero-avenger-fisheries-research-and-man-who-showed-forrest-gump-how Citation No. 2: “Obituary: Johan Hjort 1869-1948”, Written by A. C. Hardy, & Published on November 1st, 1950. Published by Royal Society Publishing. Retrieval Date: October 15th, 2024. https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/pdf/10.1098/rsbm.1950.0012 Citation No. 3: “Scientist Of The Day: Johann Hjort”, Written by Dr. William B. Ashworth, & Published on October 7th, 2015. Retrieval Date: October 15th, 2024. https://www.lindahall.org/about/news/scientist-of-the-day/johann-hjort/ Citation No. 4: “A Sea Change: Johan Hjort & The Natural Fluctuations In Fish Stocks”, Written by Vera Schwach, & Published in October 2014. Retrieval Date: October 15th, 2024. https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Johan-Hjort-was-a-well-regarded-marine-scientist-but-also-a-controversial-Director-of_fig1_273028270 Citation No. 5: “Hjort, Johan (1869-1948): Marine & Fisheries Biology”, Written by Charles Smith, & Published in 2005. Published by Some Biogeographers, Evolutionists and Ecologists: Chrono-Biographical Sketches. Retrieval Date: October 15th, 2024. https://people.wku.edu/charles.smith/chronob/HJOR1869.htm Citation No. 6: “Johan Hjort: A Marine Research Pioneer Whose Ideas Still Hold Water”, Written by Unknown, & Published on November 15th, 2019. Published by The Barents Observer. Retrieval Date: October 15th, 2024. https://www.thebarentsobserver.com/news/johan-hjort-a-marine-research-pioneer-whose-ideas-still-hold-water/226511 Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Marine Enthusiasts Podcast  StemScribe Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

A stunning photograph of a coral reef by Raphael Ritson-Williams. In today’s article, we delve into an interview conducted by our head writer with esteemed professor, coral researcher, & underwater photographer, Raphael Ritson-Williams.  Raphael Ritson Williams is an esteemed marine biologist currently working as a Professor at California State University, Northridge. He is well known for is tropical coral research, chemical ecology research, & photographs of nudibranchs as well as other marine animals. His photographs have been featured in numerous naturalistic magazines, including National Geographic, Scientific American, & The New York Times. In addition to these, he is well known for his science communication efforts with young science students, including his Big Data in Biology project.  In this interview, we ask Professor Ritson-Williams about his research, outreach, underwater photography, successes, failures, & advice for new marine biologists in 28 questions. Please note that all answers have been edited for clarity, & that the opinions of our interviewee do not necessarily reflect the opinions of our newsletter. With that being said, let us delve into the contents of the Interview. The Contents Of The Interview Questions About His Passion for Marine Life: 1. What sparked your interest in marine biology? You know, I’ve always loved being outside. Just being outside & seeing all sorts of creatures & different landscapes have always, I’ve always enjoyed it. I was born in Santa Cruz, & my parents would take me tide-pooling as a young child. I used to think that it was so cool that all these little creatures lived in tide pools, & that sparked my interest. It inspired me to pursue marine biology multiple times in my education in high school, at one point I did a summer program in biology. Then in college, I tried to take more ecology & marine biology-focused classes. In the middle of my college career, I went scuba diving in Jamaica & Belize. The Caribbean is amazing for Scuba diving, it was gorgeous. I remember thinking right then “I want to study coral reefs”. That was a real turning point in which I pivoted away from general biology, & further into coral reef stuff. 2. Is there a specific person, place, or moment that made you realize you wanted to pursue marine biology? As a high school senior, I took this month-long summer class about marine life. We did lots of things during it, we trawled, we caught fish, and we even went snorkeling around Catalina Island. I just loved everything that we did during it, & was very fascinated. That cemented the idea that I wanted to be a marine biologist. The other students didn’t like it, they thought the fish was slimy, and it was not for everyone. 3. Do you have a favorite marine or terrestrial animal & if so, why?  Gosh, I’m not sure I have a favorite! I would say I like underappreciated things. For instance, when I was getting my master's degree, I studied flatworms. I didn't know anything about flatworms at the time until I started collecting them & studying them. Half the species I had collected were new to science!  I would say they are kind of like nudibranchs, they're a bit like nudibranchs in appearance. They're charming, very colorful, I love them, especially the tropical ones. So I would say my favorite animals are the underappreciated ones that are still super diverse.  I also do work in chemical ecology. I studied a compound called tetrodotoxin, so as a result, one of my favorite creatures is the Blue Ringed Octopus. In general, I think that one of the coolest creatures is octopi because they can change colors & swim in all of these weird ways. They're definitely some of my favorite creatures. 4. What sparked your interest in underwater diving? Gosh, I learned to Scuba Dive in the middle of college! It was just sort of a way to get underwater at the time & see different creatures. I would say the first 20 to 30 dives that I did, I felt like an alien in a different world. I didn't really know how to deal with being underwater, it was such a different place. I would say after the first 40 dives I became super comfortable there, & I sort of realized that it is not difficult to be a Scuba Diver. 5. How did you become interested in Science Communication & Outreach? My desire to be a teacher is sort of pushing my career, & my desire to do outreach. One of the hills that I may or may not die on is that scientists do a really bad job communicating science. Part of it is our training; we have to use these fancy words to communicate our science to other scientists -- but then that excludes 99% of humans! I think that's a flaw, to move forward with science we have to engage everybody. Some people deny all sorts of scientific things just because they don't understand it, & I worry that it is our fault. You know, I will say communicating science is a real challenge. It's like being a translator; you have to take scientific language & communicate it to normal humans properly. Questions About His Career: 6. How did you begin your career in marine biology? At the beginning of my career, I was fascinated with getting outside & doing fieldwork. When I visited Jamaica & Belize, I was just traveling around South America for a few months before graduation. I had the opportunity to volunteer while Scuba Diving, & I loved it. When I graduated from College, for my Bachelor's Degree. I was looking to do similar fieldwork projects, but everyone wanted to do fieldwork. Unfortunately, I didn't get a job in that, so I ended up working as a secretary because I am a very fast typer. It paid just fine, however I was incredibly bored. I was just putting away papers & alphabetizing files. It's fine if that is what you want to do, it pays alright & I could go home & have fun, but it was not fulfilling. 7. Which universities did you attend for your Bachelor’s & Masters Degree? I attended Evergreen State College in Washington for my Bachelor's Degree, & the University of Guam for my Master's. Both are in biology.  Evergreen State College is a state school in Washington, it was a really good choice at the time because I was living in Portland, Oregon. It had a very non-traditional academic culture, so you got to design your research projects and then get class credits for those. That appealed to me quite a lot. They had this fantastic marine biology program, so there were many classes about marine biology, which was amazing. They were also very focused on teaching, which is very important to me! At larger universities there is this sort of pressure to do research, which is absolutely important & integral, however, you are a professor at the end of the day & have to care about your students. I got my master's degree in Guam, which is this little island even further west than Hawaii. The advantage there was that I could jump off the island & be in a coral reef instantly. 8. How did you up studying at the University of Hawai’i for your PhD? After working in Florida after my master's degree, I wanted to get my P.hD in coral ecology, & there aren't a whole lot of places to do that in the United States. It was very important to me that I had access to a coral reef, so I ended up choosing Hawaii. There was also this one professor that I wanted to work with who left right after I arrived, so I ended up transferring to another person's lab & doing my P.hd under Ruth Gates. I'm not sorry that I changed to work in her lab, she was an amazing lady, & I can't say enough good things about her.  9. What was the subject of your thesis, did you have any advisors or mentors? I had the plan to do this really complex experiment that would look at multiple stressors & how they would affect the health of a coral colony, & how sediment, as well as temperatures, would interact with coral & affect its health. Then it was an incredibly hot year, & all the coral bleaching in Hawaii. My advisor, Ruth Gates, told me that they needed someone to go out & study this coral bleaching, & she looked right at me. I thought that was probably a hint, & it ballooned into my dissertation product.  I would argue that I am mostly an experimental ecologist, I enjoy designing experiments & testing things. In an experimental framework, you can control a lot of things. However, this project was out in the field. It was a change of pace for me in terms of, this was more observational than experimental. Often in science, you may have a clear picture of what you want to achieve, but don't ignore all the random obstacles that pop up. Because often, they lead to incredibly interesting projects. Don't limit yourself. 10. How did you become a professor at CSUN, & which courses are you currently teaching? It was a very long, windy road to professorship. I finished my P.hd in 2017, then I did a postdoctoral at the California Academy of Sciences. That was wonderful, the money dried up for that after 2 or 3 years. Then, I worked as an adjunct professor at Santa Clara University, as a lecturer. I found them through a posting for an ecologist to teach for a year, & responded. They thought I was a good teacher, & ended up renewing my contract for 3 more years. No one gave me a prescriptive about how to teach, so I got to try out many things on my own. I taught a flipped class at one point, in which students would watch their lectures at home & only do work while in class. That was an incredible way to teach certain topics.  I would say doing my postdoctoral program was very formative in terms of my projects now, I learned many new skills through it & I've gotten to apply those skills to so many new & exciting questions.  As for which classes I teach, I teach Biology 106 which is Introduction to General Biology, & this one upper-division class which is on experimental design & analysis. Next semester I will be teaching a graduate class on how to effectively use the computer program R. 11. How did you get the idea to do outreach & education involving marine biology & how exactly do you do it? I began doing outreach while I was in Hawaii. So in Hawaii, there is this kind of very complex invasive algae that made this network where marine animals could live. I love biodiversity, so I would hold outreach events where the children would just count how many different creatures there were. It was wonderful to show them, & super fun. 12. How did you begin developing lessons, how many lessons do you currently have on your website, & which lesson did you enjoy developing the most? I believe that I have 6 lessons online as of now, I wanted my website to be an outreach venue. When I built it, I envisioned it as a resource for teachers. I think that providing these lessons for free & in an accessible way introduces people to the field who would have never been interested otherwise.  13. What is your Big Data in Biology Project, how did you develop it, & how long did it take you to develop it? My Big Data In Biology Project was sort of an experiment, I held a ten-day long course in which I taught fifth graders how to use the Data Analysis Program R. I would argue that as we get older, we have more of a fear of using computers, & it gets harder to learn to code using a computer program. I think that if we can get students in this young, they won't be as afraid of it. I taught it twice to 2 different cohorts of students, with give or take 20 students in each class. About half class learned R just fine, with 1 to 5 students excelling at it. As students get older, they grow to be more afraid of failure. When they're younger, there is less of that. I would say that failure is a very important part of science, & not enough people acknowledge that. I would say that I failed at almost every experiment before getting it correctly, it's a valuable part of the learning process.  14. What was the proudest or most fulfilling moment in your career thus far? Gosh, I'd say the hardest thing that I have done in my career was getting this job! Maybe it is because I am so new, however, this is the proudest thing that I have done so far. I'm also quite proud of all the papers I have written, I would say I've written over 50. In my younger days, I used to keep track of this, & I knew exactly how many I had. Once you get past a certain number, it doesn't matter anymore. In the beginning, I wanted to have publications for credibility I suppose. In the last 10 years, however, my mindset has begun to change. Now I no longer publish something simply because I want credibility, I want it to matter & to mean something. That being said, I don't believe any of my early papers were bad, however they were written with a purpose. 15. What is the largest challenge that you encountered at any point in your career? This isn't really an issue related to me, it's more of a field-wide issue. However, I'm very concerned that the upper echelons of science, such as the level of being a professor, lacks diversity. That worries me, if you were to survey our departments there are very few people of colour, & very few women. There is also not much diversity in terms of the backgrounds of people who reach professorship, usually, those people come from an academically inclined family. Very few of us are first-generation professors.  I see that as a challenge not so much in my career, but as something that I am very concerned with, & I would like to address that. 16. What is your advice for new marine biologists beginning in this field? It's a very broad field. Many people go into it thinking that it is all swimming with dolphins when that is a very small percentage of the field. My advice for new marine biologists is primarily to learn as many skills as possible, & expand your tool belt. I think that is one of the major reasons I have been successful in science, I know how to do everything from measuring photosynthesis to doing organic chemistry. Do not limit yourself, don't think that you are only going to be a fish biologist or only going to study dolphins. Questions About His Research: 17. What was your first research project? My first publication was on Nudibranchs, & their interactions with corals. I was doing that project with one of my advisors, Valerie Paul, she paid me to do it, & it was fun! That was one of the things that got me interested in Chemical Ecology. 18. What inspired you to do research involving tropical coral reefs? I've always identified coral reefs as a threatened ecosystem, which has caused me to want to do research that would help corals persist in the future.  19. Do you do research involving Crustose Coralline Algae? Yes! In fact, that's a major aspect of my research program moving forward. So, when coral larvae are looking for a place to settle on the ocean floor, they use this particular kind of algae to signal to them that an area is safe for them to grow in. Coralline algae have similar requirements to coral, meaning that if coralline algae is thriving in an environment, coral is likely to as well. It's a very fascinating subject. In many ways, Coralline algae is tied to the oceanic ecology of California. I'm very interested in seeing how it interacts with other elements of our ecosystems, & how they impact other species. 20. What research are you currently conducting at CSUN & how are you involving students? I'm currently looking at Coralline algae along the California Coastline & seeing exactly how many species there are, as they are all physically very similar & you must use genetics to tell certain species apart. I would like to involve more students in that, I'm currently looking into involving a few undergraduate students. 21. How do you get funding for your current research? As a new professor, I have a small research budget given to me by my university. For the first 2 years, I get some money, however, after that, I'm responsible for getting grants on my own. Honestly, I like to write grants, I think that it is such a magical thing that as a scientist I can write a 15-page grant & the National Science Foundation will send me a million dollars.  You've got to stand out to get funding, their funding rate is incredibly low at 5%, maybe 10%. You have to be more than just a smart person to get a grant, you have to be interesting. 22. What exactly do you do in your capacity as a research fellow at the California Reefs Initiative? The research that I did at the California Reefs Initiative was a part of the Post-Doctoral Program I did with the California Academy of Sciences. They got a large donation to study coral reefs while I was there, so I worked on a project similar to my dissertation studying the difference between bleached & unbleached corals. I worked with them for a year or two, it was very fulfilling. Questions About His Scuba Diving & Underwater Photographs: 23. How did you begin Scuba Diving, & how did you earn your certification? I first learned to Scuba dive in Santa Cruz, as I was there for a summer & had some time. Usually over the summer, I would work a job, this year I worked this random construction job. I had a little bit of extra free time on the weekends, & decided to take a Scuba-diving class because that was always something that I wanted to learn! I would learn about it in this classroom in Santa Clara, & do open water dives in Monterey. It was very cold, you've got to be comfortable with being cold to dive. 24. How did you begin doing underwater photography, & what is your underwater camera? I believe I got my first Camera during my Master's Degree. One of the professors that I was working with in Guam wanted us to photograph everything that we collected, & he had this fantastic underwater housing setup, & taught me as well as a friend how to properly photograph things underwater. My first camera was a Nikonos 5 underwater slide camera, I got it around 2006. I learned some very important lessons by starting with slide photography, as I only had 36 slides in every roll of film. It caused me to be very judicious about what deserved to be photographed.  I intend to purchase a new camera soon, I feel like I'm at a place now where I could use a larger camera to take more impressive & interesting pictures. I've yet to decide on a model though.  25. What is your favourite animal to underwater photograph, & do you have a favourite underwater photograph? I really enjoy clownfish! There is something about clownfish in an anemone that is so fascinating, I must have a thousand pictures of Clownfish at this point. The texture of an anemone is also amazing, I'm very interested in capturing texture in my photographs. My favorite photograph as of now is on this massive print at my house, it is of this photograph that I took in the Caribbean of this fish called a Flamingo Tongue. It's pink with little spots all over it, & it is on a purple gorgonian coral. The fish is sitting front & center, & the coral makes this beautiful texture. I believe the photograph is on my website, it is one of my favorites. 26. Although you may not keep track of this, how many estimated dives have you been on? Gosh, somewhere on the scale of 1,000.  27. What is your favourite place that you have dove, & when do you intend to dive again? I love the Caribbean & the Pacific Ocean, however, there is something about the Gorgonian corals of the Caribbean that I just love. Unfortunately, I have not done any dives this year, & have only done a few since the COVID-19 pandemic.  28. Do you have any final words about marine biology, tropical reefs, climate change, or science communication? No, I think I’ve said enough! Directories / Credits http://www.raphswall.com/ Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Marine Enthusiasts Podcast StemScribe Our Loyal Patrons P. R Ochoa

Today’s map is an antique map of Puget Sound, Washington. Puget Sound is a sound in northern Washington, with several large cities such as Tacoma and Seattle along its coastline. The sound is comprised of a very complex network of waterways going between Washington and Canada. The sound is quite large, with an area of approximately 1,020 square miles (2641.788 square kilometers).  The map is in great condition, apart from some small stains on the upper part of the map. The dimensions are approximately 40.5 inches wide, & 32.5 inches long.  In this article we will discuss the map itself, the translation of certain sections of the map, & analyze this antique nautical map. With that being said let us delve into the interesting & biodiverse area of Puget Sound. The Chart Itself An Antique Nautical Chart of Puget Sound, Washington, USA. Credit to Maps of Antiquity. As the map is in English, there is no need for translation. The chart is centered around Puget Sound, & lacks colour. It has much detail with almost every curve in the shoreline, each peninsula, & each island outlined perfectly. The names of various areas of Puget Sound are clearly outlined on the map, with most areas marked.  The map has 3 different compasses on it, which would point the reader wherever they wish to go, no matter where they are in Puget Sound. These compasses are located in the upper left corner, the middle of the chart, and the upper right corner. An Analysis Of The Chart This chart was designed in 1891 by the United States Coast & Geodetic Survey,  one of the precursors to the National Atmospheric & Oceanic Administration. The United States Coastal & Geodetic Survey was the first scientific Agency made by the United States Government, established in 1807. The Agency was unfortunately abolished in 1970 when it was merged with several other agencies to create the National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration. The map is fairly accurate as to how Puget Sound appeared at the time. Although it was made for militaristic use, it was likely also used by civilian sailors. It is not clear how this map was made, however, the most popular method at the time was Lithography. The lithographic method was most popular for map making between the early 1820s, & the early 1930s. In the lithographic method, the artist will draw directly onto a printing surface, such as zinc, or copper, until they are satisfied with the drawing. After this, the surface will be covered with a chemical etch, which will bond it to the surface. With this process, the blank areas will attract moisture to the plate & repel the lithographic ink, while the areas that are drawn on will hold the ink. Water is then wiped onto the unpainted areas to help prevent the ink from deviating. After the map wanted is inked, the paper is laid over it & covered with a tympan, & the tympan is pressed down. Finally, these materials pass through the scraper bar of the litho press. Afterward, an exact copy of whatever was supposed to be printed is revealed. Directories / Credits All credit for this map analyzed today goes to Maps Of Antiquity, a wonderful New England map shop. To purchase this map, any other maps, or any other cartographic objects, please visit mapsofantiquity.com . To be clear, this is not an advertisement for Maps Of Antiquity, as we do not have a partnership with them. Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Our Loyal Patrons P. R. Ochoa