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Ode To Oceanography: Antique Chart Of The Entirety Of New England This article is a part of the Ode to Oceanography Series. This series will publish on the 15th of every month, until we run out of antique nautical maps to analyze, though that will not be for many decades. Once that happens, we will keep the series running, but we will change the article format. In these articles, will take an antique nautical map & analyze it in its entirety. These maps will not strictly be on open oceanic waters, they may be on rivers or occasionally, bays. We will also discuss the methods that may have been used to make the map, considering the time period, & the country of origin. These maps will come from a variety of sources, though they will mainly come from Maps Of Antiquity, a wonderful New England map shop. These maps will come from varying time periods, & will not be in any particular historical order. Todays Map being analyzed is a map of the coast of New England, circa 1757. This map encompasses the entirety of coastal New England, & the entirety of Nova Scotia. This map is one of the few preserved maps of its time, & it has never once been restored. Since Nova Scotia has coastline approximately 13,000 kilometers (8077.8255 miles) of coastline, Maine has a coastline of approximately 3,478 miles (2161.75 kilometers), & the rest of New England has approximately 2,033 miles (3271.7964 kilometers) of coastline. That gives this map approximately 13,588.8255 miles of coastline. In this article we will discuss the map itself & the translation of certain sections of the map, & a surface level analysis on this antique nautical map. With that being said let us delve into the New England Coastline. The Map Itself This map is incredibly detailed, with an impressive amount of depth. Since there is french on it, it is our duty to translate the article into English. The top emblem says in its first half, “Carte Reduite des Costes Orientales de l'Amerique Septentrionale”, which translates to “Reduite map of the Eastern Costes of North America”. In its second half, it is much to blurry to make out what it actually states. It does outline a few topographical features, such as mountains, along with a few valleys as well. A Surface Level Analysis Of The Map This map was made in the year 1757, which would have been during the time when America, was not yet its own country. It is currently unclear where exactly this map was found, or made which country this map was made in. Since the map is in french, it was most likely made in Canada, or Paris, as Paris was the core city of cartography at the time. It is also unclear who exactly this map was made by, though it was most likely British, rather then American sailors. This map encompasses the entirety of New England, as well as Nova Scotia. It unfortunately has no sea monsters, or things such as the legendary Champ monster, outlined on the map. The map is extremely accurate, aside from a few minor proportional issues in relation to a few New Englander islands. This map does not have an official name, but the top piece of the emblem could be interpreted as a name, or title of sorts. There are no wave, or wind patterns on this map, though that is to be expected due to the time of the maps making. There are one of 2 ways this map could have been made. Either, it was directly hand drawn & coloured, meaning that it is one of kind, which is quite plausible to the many overlapping lines, & extraordinary detail. Alternatively, it could have been made the traditional way, & been mass produced. In this technique, there are 5 jobs, the mapmaker, the engraver, the printer, the papermaker, & the colourist. The first step in this process is that the mapmaker will go out & make a hand-drawn map of the area where the map will encompass. Effectively, the mapmaker is the informant who makes the first copy. After this, the engraver will create a design of the map in reverse on a metal, usually copper, surface. Usually there would only be 1-2 plates used, however it differs depending on the size of the map. After the copper plate is made, the printer will heat the copper panel, & then proceed to lather it with ink. They will then wipe the copper panel down to the point where ink is only on the grooves of the panel. Then after this, the printer will press damp paper onto the ink, & hang it up to dry. To conclude, the colourist will touch up the map & decorate it by adding in details, such as shorelines & shoals. Out of the 2, it seems that it was hand drawn, & it is one of a kind or one of very few ever made. Directories / Credits All credit for this map analyzed today goes to Maps Of Antiquity, a wonderful New England map shop. To purchase this map, & any other maps, please visit mapsofantiquity.com . To be clear, this is not an advertisement for Maps Of Antiquity, as we do not have a partnership with them. Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

The Frilly-Mouthed Jellyfish Of Maiori, Italy (Rhizostoma Pulmo) This month’s article series will discuss the quaint town along the Amalfi coast known as Maiori. Maiori is a small town along the Amalfi coastline, in the province of Salerno. It is famous for its large lemon production, as well as its incredibly old chapels. It is an inexpensive resort town & has been since the roman times. 2 anonymous sponsors decided to graciously donate us money in order to go to Maiori & conduct various experiments. During the 5th of September, we will publish an article on the various experiments we conducted & research data we collected. These articles will be published under our newest newsletter, which is named “The Persaud Catalogue: Scientific Journal of Marine Biology”. This will be the first publication under that newsletter. Maiori is also wonderfully inexpensive so this makes it a day trip destination. It is also possible one of the best places to go marine-creature watching in the province of Salerno. It has a rich history that ties in to a twin town that is nearby, known as Minori. Maiori has the longest stretch of unbroken coastline along the entire Amalfi coast, which makes it a prime location for both coastal & marine life. Maiori is also famous for their delightful various scuba diving tours. The town currently has a bustling coastline in that many marine creatures will choose to live along it. One of the main creatures found along the coast, is the Frilly-Mouthed Jellyfish. The Frilly-Mouthed Jellyfish is a 59 inch long jellyfish species that lives along the Amalfi coast. If is most often seen in colours of blue, pink, & violet. It is extremely large & is one of the largest jellyfish to live in the northern Sea. They are not extremely aggressive & their sting is not very painful, however it is best to avoid contact with them if possible. They are unfortunately, invading Italian waters. There are very many of them in Italian waters, & there are not exactly supposed to be that many. They are reproducing very quickly, & also enjoy coastal habitats over open oceanic habitats. This makes it so that they crowd the beaches during the summer months, which are prime tourist months. This is why, whenever visiting Maiori or villages close by, you should always beware of jellyfish. In this article we will discuss the life of the Frilly-Mouthed Jellyfish, The Mating Tactics, Strategies, Habits, Cycles, & Procedures of the Frilly-Mouthed Jellyfish, The Distribution of the Frilly-Mouthed Jellyfish, The Scientific Detailings of the Frilly-Mouted Jellyfish, & finally what to do in the event that you are stung by the Frilly-Mouthed Jellyfish. With that being said, let us delve into this strange cnidarian. The Life Of The Frilly-Mouthed Jellyfish The Frilly-Mouthed jellyfish was first described in the year 1778. It was described by Johann Friedrich Gmelin. It is unknown how he found the first specimen he came across or which journey he first encountered it on. They will live for 12 months to 20 years before dying. As said in the introductory section of this article, they are usually 16 inches (0.4064 meters or 1.33333 feet) in diameter, & 59 inches (1.4986 meters or 4.91667 feet) long. As a frame of reference, the average Italian lady is 5 feet & 4 inches tall, a mere 5 inches taller then this jellyfish. The approximate average weight of the jellyfish is 25 kilograms (55.1156 pounds), however they can be up to 35 kilograms. This species, is not very intelligent as far as oceanic creatures are concerned. Since Jellyfish are classified under the phylum known as “Cnidaria”, they have do not have a circulatory system, any brain tissue, or a heart. They do have a nervous system though, which is the primary function of theres. This will be further discussed in the section titled: The Scientific Detailings Of The Frilly-Mouthed Jellyfish. Jellyfish have existed for at minimum 500 million years as we know them. However it is currently unknown how old jellyfish or even this species of jellyfish is. There are very few fossil records of jellyfish or this species in particular. They do not show affection or appear to have any sense of memory. They cannot hold any resentment against another past creature that has wronged them. It does not seem to be very territorial or migratory. There is unfortunately very little documentation on their migratory patterns. They are social creatures &, they will hunt & live in groups of various sizes. They often will have colonies with each other, & it is uncommon to find a singular Frilly-Mouthed jellyfish. They tend to not interact with humans & to stay in their colonies. They have been captured by humans before both alive & dead. They do sleep in a way, in that they will stop pulsing as frequently & will not move for a while. It is unknown how fast they can swim however it is below 2 centimeters per second. They will catch plankton & immobilize them with their tentacles, then they will put them in their bell shaped mouths & digest them. They are not cannibalistic & only feed on plankton. They metabolism seems to be somewhat slow & they do not seem to hunt very often. They are 30% less active at night so they will usually hunt in the daytime. Unfortunately it is unknown how much they consume per day & how often they will consume food. The main natural predator for this creature is the Leatherback Turtle. So much so, that this species has made the leatherback turtle become endangered. The Jellyfish did this by causing the turtles to believe that plastic waste are jellyfish & then consuming plastic waste. The frilly-mouthed jellyfish is strange in design. The Frilly-Mouthed jellyfish has a long circular bell about 16 inches in diameter. Below them, they have 8 main tentacles & small clusters of thin tentacles around the main 8. Their main body is usually white or ivory in colour, & their tentacles are usually pink & purple. Oftentimes the embellishments are purple on these creatures. The Frilly-Mouthed jellyfish does not have a listing on the IUCN list. This means that it is classified data-deficient. The Mating Tactics, Strategies, Habits, Cycles, & Procedures Of The Frilly-Mouthed Jellyfish Frilly-mouthed Jellyfish do breed via sexual reproduction & asexual reproduction. They are not hermaphroditic & cannot change sexes. They are not monogamous creatures. The females & males both sexually mature at approximately 60 centimeters long. Little is known about the actual mating ritual. After the eggs are fully fertilized & laid, the female & male will abandon their eggs & go off to mate once more. Once the eggs are made the parents will cease to have any involvement with the children. 2 days after being laid & fertilized the eggs will hatch & become free-swimming larvae. There are usually 100 of them laid at once. After the larvae becomes free-swimming, it will become a polyp. These polyps can produce baby jellyfish before they become a full grown jellyfish. A polyp is able to asexually make juvenile jellyfish, & full grown jellyfish are able to sexually make a juvenile jellyfish. They do not have a specific age in which they are the most fertile. The Distribution Of The Frilly-Mouthed Jellyfish The frilly-mouthed jellyfish is found in the Atlantic Ocean. It is most commonly found off the coast of Great Britain & in the North Sea. It is found throughout the Mediterranean, the Sea of Azov, & the Black Sea. They are coastal creatures & for a specific reason. Plankton often washes up along the shoreline of beaches, so these jellyfish will flock there in order to catch & eat the plankton. This is why jellyfish blooms are becoming such a large issue along Italian Coastlines. This Jellyfish is found in somewhat equal population density across everywhere besides the coastal areas of Great Britain. They are found extremely commonly off the coast of Great Britain & in the Irish sea. The Scientific Detailings Of The Frilly-Mouthed Jellyfish The most unique feature of the Frilly-mouthed jellyfish, is there strange assortment of tentacles. Usually, Jellyfish will have many long thick tentacles & then a few smaller tendrils. However, in the case of the frilly-mouthed jellyfish, they have 8 main tentacles & then numerous fine tentacle clumps surrounding their main tentacles. They usually have between 16 & 32 stubby tentacles. Their tentacles longer tentacles also have softer areas on the end, which extend outwards in a bell shape. The tentacles hang just below the mouth, so this gives off the appearance that they are frilly-mouthed. This is most likely where the name “Frilly-Mouthed Jellyfish” originated. This species does sting but their sting is not lethal. Unfortunately, this species of jellyfish’s venom is un-researched. It is unknown exactly what is in their venom. Their phylum is Cnidaria. Cnidaria is phylum that contains approximately 11,000 species, all of which are aquatic. Cnidarians have 2 main bodily forms, these forms are swimming medusae & sessile polyps. These bodily forms are both surrounded by tentacles which are used to carry food towards their mouth. Creatures under the phylum of Cnidaria all have only 1 bodily orifice that is used for respiration, excretion, & digestion. Cnidarians lack brains, hearts, or a circulatory system. They have a decentralized nerve net & function based off of how their nerves perceive things. The majority of cnidarians do not have eyes however some have very simple eyes that detect light. They have very few sensory organs & their most distinguishing feature by far is having the presence of cnidoctyes (nematocysts) which are a specialized type of cell that is used to capture prey & defend against predatory beings. This type of cell holds toxin & is the cell responsible for delivering a sting. Their class is Scyphozoa, or true jellyfish. A defining quality of species categorized under this class is that they are not filter feeders, they instead strain the plankton from the water using their tentacles. Their order is Rhizostomeae. Fauna categorized under this category do not have tentacles as we view them or other structures at the bottom edge of of their bell, they have 8 branched oral arms. Their family is Rhizostomatidae. This is a family of true jellyfish. Their genus is Rhizostoma. Rhizostoma is a genus of semi-large rhizostomatid jellyfish which are found in the Atlantic. Their binomial name is Rhizostoma Pulmo. What To Do In The Event That You Are Stung By A Frilly-Mouthed Jellyfish As a disclaimer, we are not health professionals. These treatments may not work for all sting sites. Step No. 1: Immediately Exit The Water Once you have found out that you have been stung, immediately exit the water. Step No. 2: Get The Remaining Tentacles Off You Immediately Using tweezers & gloves or a cloth covering, carefully remove the tentacles. Do not attempt to scrape them out with your bare hand. Step No. 3 Apply Hot Water On The Sting Site Apply hot water on the stung site. The water should be between 110° to 113° Fahrenheit. If the water feels scalding, do not apply it on the stung site as it will worsen the pain. Make sure the water is not boiling before you apply it. Also, avoid application of cold water to the stung site. Step No. 4 Apply Lidocaine Cream Lidocaine cream is a numbing cream found in a variety of pharmaceutical stores. It is a numbing cream that will help with both the pain & inflammation. It is very useful to have on-hand when going into an area where jellyfish are common. Apply at the sting site sparingly. Step No. 5 Go To A Doctor If Possible Once all these steps are completed, you most likely will not have to visit a doctor. The sting of a Frilly-Mouthed jellyfish is relatively mild & is not lethal. However, you should still see your doctor if you are stung. This step is not necessary but it is advised. Going to a hospital or emergency clinic is not necessary for this kind of sting. Directories / Credits https://www.dorsetwildlifetrust.org.uk/wildlife-explorer/marine/anemones-and-corals/barrel-jellyfish https://www.inaturalist.org/guide_taxa/962008 https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/jellyfish-stings/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20353290 Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa

This article is a part of our second newsletter titled, The Persaud Catalogue Scientific Journal of Marine Biology. In this journal, we will publish information concerning the various marine flora & fauna of certain places. This newsletter, will publish sporadically, & not on a timed basis like The Persaud Catalog. This journal is in affiliation with The Persaud Catalog, however it is a separate entity. In this article, we will state all of the most prominent species of Marine Flora in Ranchos Palos Verdes that were found. We will state the density of these species, the place where it was found the most, & a detailed description of the species. Please note, this was done with the correct permits, do not attempt to imitate this survey without being aware of the permits necessary to do so. On July 15th, we sent out 2 field agents out to Abalone Cove Beach in order to survey all seagrass species in the cove. We have took the coordinates & a sample of certain of these species, in order to study them. They discovered that there are 2 species of seagrass found in the ocean around the cove, which are Zostera Marina (Common Eelgrass / Seawrack) & Macrocystis Pyfiera (Bladder Kelp / Giant Kelp). Due to this article being public, there is now an official log as to all the seagrass & seaweed species found in Abalone Cove. To be clear, this is a survey that will only be conducted once, & not yearly like the Malibu surveys. This survey is a stand alone study. With that being said, let us delve into the seagrasses of Ranchos Palos Verdes Beach. The Initial Survey Of Abalone Cove Beach All specimens were found at approximately 5:34 PM on July 15th. This was closer to low tide, so more specimens were available for examination. At this time, the tide was rising, so that may effect the results of today’s survey. Below are the results of the Seagrass Survey conducted on July 15th, 2023. Seagrass Species No. 1: Zostera Marina (Common Eelgrass / Seawrack) This specimen was the second most prominent on the beach, but was found extremely rarely. We could only find small specimens of this wrapped around clumps of Macrocystis. This species is extremely easy to identify as it is long, thin, & green. It was found at the coordinates of Latitude 33°44’32” North, & Longitude 118°22’51” West, wrapped up in a large piece of Macrocystis Pyfiera. This species was only really found in the central areas of the cove. Zostera Marina usually has leaves as thick as 0.47 inches (1.1938). Our specimen of this species was approximately 50 inches (127 centimeters) long. Unfortunately, it was not attached to any sort of root, so the true length of the main plant it came from is unknown. It seemed to have snapped off from its main stem, though we cannot confirm this. Usually, the stem & root of the seagrass is white. This species is a true seagrass, meaning it grows rooted on the seafloor, like a grass. This species usually grows in water of 10 meters (32.8084) or less. Seagrass Species No. 2: Macrocystis Pyfiera (Giant Kelp / Bladder Kelp) This specimen was the most prominent on the beach by a large margin. There were large clumps of it in certain areas, but some areas were completely barren. Due to the presence of the large seaweed matts further out at sea, seaweed usually doesn’t wash ashore, it instead becomes tangled in large matts that float on the surface. This specimen was found at the coordinates of Latitude 33°44’32” North, & Longitude 118°22’51” West. This species was found littered all around the cove, in huge quantities. This species in the highest density in the sandy portions, & & intertidal areas of the beach. It was found extremely rarely in the rocky areas of the cove. Our specimen of this species was approximately 10.5 inches (26.67 centimeters) long. Commonly, this species will grow off the coast in large forests. One of our field agents discovered that these forests were present approximately 100 feet off of the shore. This species is characterized by its massive leaves, long blades, & its air filled fruits that grow off the edge of the blades. This species is the worlds largest species of marine algae. Since it is a seaweed, it does not have roots, it instead grows on a holdfast in a large canopy, in intertidal zones. Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

The Documented History Of Barcelona, Spain Today’s article will discuss the history of the the Spanish city known as Barcelona. We went on an expedition to Barcelona in order to do some seagrass related research & things of that nature. Results from this will be published in a new journal of ours called “The Persaud Catalogue: Scientific Journal of Marine Biology”. It will be located on this same website & will just be published in a different area of the website. For more information please look at the article titled “Major Announcement: The Persaud Catalogue: Scientific Journal Of Marine Biology”, published on March 17th. Barcelona is a city in Spain, located on the Mediterranean Sea. It is attached to mainland Spain & it is not apart of an island. The city is known largely for its superb beaches, beautiful artworks, & architectural features. However, Barcelona offer much more then just an exciting city, it has absolutely wonderful areas to snorkel in. Barcelona has a vast selection of marine life, this is largely due to the favourable weather conditions of the areas surrounding Barcelona. It is also extremely active marine wise, with many species being brightly coloured & high in population. For example, whale sightings are very common off the coast of Barcelona from March to October. Also, jellyfish enjoy invading the beaches of Barcelona during the summer months. Barcelona’s history dates back the Neolithic age. It has had very many wars as well as many triumphs. It has had to deal with many religious conflicts as well, especially by the muslims. The oceanic resources have been used since the very beginning of Barcelona. Especially in the way of fishing & transportation, as Barcelona is a coastal city. We will be only including the information that is available to the public domain. We will also, not be including the history of the entirety of Spain, only Barcelona. We will also only be including history on what are considered modern Barcelonian borders. If the city was once larger & then had land taken from it, we will not include the history of that land. In this article we shall discuss the documented history of Barcelona, both before & after Colonization, information on the aboriginals of Barcelona, the most destructive natural & man-caused disasters to ever affect Barcelona, & finally, the economic state of Barcelona. The Documented History Of Barcelona, Spain Before Colonization By The United Spanish & Romans The earliest human remains discovered in Barcelona, date back to 2500 B.C. However, the earliest human settlements were not thought to be established until 2000 B.C at the earliest & 1500 B.C at the latest. After Colonization By The Romans The romans formally invaded the area in 218 B.C. They established themselves on Montjüic nearby the village of Laye, where they built a fortress. During Augustus Caesar rule, the romand was moved from Montjüic to Mont Tàber. This is where Plaça de Sant Jaume currently resides. This place was originally called Barcino, which is believed to have eventually evolved into the name Barcelona. The 300’s During this century, Barcino was destroyed by various germanic tribes. After this, Barcino was reconstructed & fortified with a 100,000 square meter (1076391.0420000001 square feet) wall. This shows that the romans were extremely invested in the city, it also shows the cities meaning to them. The 400’s In the year 415 the Visigoths led by Ataulf attacked Barcino after crossing the Pyrenees fleeing from Southern Gaul. Barcelona was then promptly declared the seat of Ataulf’s court for a brief period of time before he was murdered & the capital was moved to Toulouse, France. According to a Latin poet by the name of Rufo Fest Avieno who was born at the later half of the 4th century, Barcelona was home to 2 Iberian villages. One was located on Mont Tàber & unfortunately its name is unknown. This village was thought to have been called Barcilo Barcinom, of Barkeno. These various names were thought to be the origin of the name Barcelona. The other small township was named Laye & was located on Montjüic. This was inhabited by the Laietani peoples. The 500’s The Visigoths still controlled Barcelona during this time. The Visigoths were a group of north germanic people who united themselves under the rule of a king. The 600’s The Visigoths still controlled Barcelona during this time. At this point the Visigoths have controlled Barcelona for 2 centuries. After Colonization By The Muslims / Moors The 700’s The Visigoths controlled Barcelona until 717. This means that they controlled Barcelona for a total of 3 centuries. Between the years of 717 & 718 the Moors captured all of Barcelona. The Moors then ruled for the rest of the century. These Moors were Muslim & this is the time when Barcelona was ruled by the Muslims. In 758 the local Walï declared independence from the emirate of Cordoba which was ruled by the Umayyed dynasty. To declare this independence, he had to ally with the french. There ended up being a struggle for power between the Muslims & the Carolingians, & the Carolingians won. They ended up fully capturing Barcelona in 801. After Colonization By The Carolingians The 800’s In 801, Louis the Pious won the war against the Muslims & declared Barcelona to be under-rule of the Carolingian empire. The Carolingian empire was a family of French aristocrats who established an empire throughout western Europe. The empire lasted from 750 to 887 A.D. The name is thought to be from many family members who bore the name, Charles. The Franks formed it into the County of Barcelona, thereby integrating the Spanish denominations into the Carolingian Empire. To be clear, the Carolingians are the french. This original county was extremely small plot of land bordering the County of Girona & the County of Osona. In the year 803, the french named Bera who was a gothic tycoon, the first count of Barcelona. For this entire century, the county was directly ruled by various appointed french counts. The County of Barcelona suffered many raids by the Islamic during the years 827, 850, 852, & 856. In the year 878 Louis the stammerer named Wilfred / Wifred the Hairy, the count of both Barcelona & the neighbouring city of Girona. He was also named the count of several other counties such as Sardina & Urgell. He was count of Barcelona from 878-897, he led Barcelona to play a leading role in Catalonia during that time. After this, the new Count of Barcelona was Wilfred the II. Who was coincidentally, the son of the previous count. He was also known as Borell II. Wilfred the II ruled from 897 to 911 A.D. it is important to note that at this point, the title “Count Of Barcelona” become hereditary. The 900’s After this, the Count of Barcelona was Sunyer, one of Wilfreds sons. He was also the count of Girona & Ausona from 911 to 947 A.D. During Sunyer’s rule, he extended his influence to Ebro Delta. His successors were ended up being vassals for the muslims, yet they did not prevent the various raids by them. The worst of these raids took place in the year 965. 2 decades later in the year 985, Almanzor the chancellor of the Umayyad caliphate of Córdoba, launched a mass assault on the city & destroyed it. The 1000’s The next major Barcelonian count was known as Berenguer Ramon the Hunchback I. He ruled from 1017 to 1031 A.D. It was with him that success came to the county, as he put it in a more powerful & important position. He expanded the county farther south & prevented other counties such as Sardinia, Urgell, & Pallars from expanding. After him was count Ramon Berenguer I the old. He governed from 1035 to 1026 A.D. Soon after, Count Ramon Berenguer II wanted to conquer the county of Valencia, but Cid convinced him not to. The 1100’s Towards the beginning of the century, Count Ramon Berenguer III married the heiress for the county of Provence. Due to this, the County Of Barcelona temporarily began a strong alliance in which they would expand internationally together. In the year 1114, the counties temporarily captured the Mallorca. Unfortunately, this union was dissolved upon the death of the Count Ramon Berenguer III. In the year 1137 Ramon Berenguer IV, to avoid Castile, he decided to marry Petronila who was the daughter of Ramiro II of Aragon. When they wed, they united the county of Barcelona was intergrated into the Aragon crown. After Colonization By Aragon Crown The 1200’s The union of the kingdom of Aragon & the county of Barcelona caused the expansion of Barcelona to be sped up throughout Catalonia. Soon after the unification, Barcelona became the economic & political capital of the Aragon crown. Barcelona was often the city of choice when celebrations were held within the Aragon kingdom. Not only was Barcelona an important city nationally, however it was important to the entire Mediterranean. This was due to the crown of Aragon being one of the main superpowers of its time. King James established the municipality of Barcelona in the year 1249. Wealth at this point was plentiful & in abundance. It remained in this way until 1333 A.D. The 1300’s During the year 1333, prosperity was demolished by a large famine that killed thousands of people, coupled with the plague that killed the people. This plague did not leave the city until the 16th century. This plague severely stunted the Barcelona’s growth. After Colonization By The United Spanish The 1400’s During the year 1401, the first bank was founded. This bank was known as the Canvis Taula. During this century, things went went severely downhill. There were many economic difficulties such as inflation, & prices exceeding wages. Due to this economic crisis, some of the trading agreements were lost. During this time, 2 factions began to form in the city. Many trading agreements at this time were signed with the county of Valencia as it could provide a more stable trade. With the currency being devalued, the textile industry became practically non-existent in Barcelona. At this time there was also a “war of the remences” in which peasants went against their lords. On October 19th 1469, Isabel of Castile & Ferdinand II of Aragon were married. This created an effective unification of Spain. Once married, the 2 unified their kingdoms. This caused Barcelona to have an economic downturn as once unified, the city of Castile became more powerful. Barcelona also lost importance due to unification. 1500’s There were very few major events that happened in Barcelona during this century. 1600’s Barcelona ended up developing a naval industry, as a small naval base was built in the county. It also was in a prosperous economic area again as it benefited from the various metal tradings between Seville & Genoa. At this point they also started using a pure copper coin. In the year 1609 they founded the Banc de la Ciudat. Unfortunately, this was short lived as soon afterwards it faced economic downturn again. This was did not get any better in the next century over either. They also suffered from bandits constantly invading the land. The Reapers war caused many casualties, which resulted in a massive population loss in Barcelona. The Reapers war also known as the Catalan revolt, was a conflict between the principality of Catalonia & France. This ended in some land being given to the french in a Treaty & a stalemate. They effectively took half of the northern area of Catalonia. The 1700’s The economy of Barcelona absolutely plummeted from where it was before due to the Spanish war of succession which began in the year 1701 & ended in 1715. This war of succession caused many rivalries in Europe as everyone was fighting on one of 2 sides. The Crown of Aragon & Barcelona were in favour of having the Hapsburgs as the monarchs. These entities both promised the Hapsburgs that they would keep their privileges. However, unfortunately Catalonia was passed to the Bourbons & the Hapsburgs were eliminated from Spanish royalty. Of course, after seeing so much war & having existing economic difficulties, Barcelona went effectively bankrupt. Once the city was conquered by the Spanish & French, it was found in complete & utter ruin. The new king of Spain & the first Bourbon king, was Phillip V. Once he began his rule he began a radical cultural transformation of Catalonia. In the year 1716 Phillip V issued the Nueva Planta Decree. This decree was to unify his Spanish empire & eliminate local jurisdiction. After Barcelona’s effective bankruptcy, it began to trade with the newly established America. This completely transformed the city from dust to luxury & the city became extremely prosperous. It also became a major city for manufacturing textiles, this caused many workers to immigrate to Barcelona. The 1800’s In the year 1848, the first railroad was inaugurated into Barcelona. Since many more workers were immigrating, higher expenses came for companies. This was not liked so oftentimes it seems, Barcelonian workers were paid unfair wages. This led to the first workers strike in the year 1854. However, this ended up leading to many decades of economic strength rather then weakness. By 1872 Barcelona had experienced the three Carlist wars, the state of siege, various strikes & barricades, & the war of independence, which made social tensions high. However, the arrival of complete restoration to the city brought peace & calmness to the social tensions of the city. It also brought a golden age for the city in economic, & artistic words. Soon afterwards in the year 1886, the trams became electrified which enabled better transportation. Naturally, to accommodate this larger avenues were built & numerous buildings along side them. The 1900’s Towards the end of the 19th century & going into the 20th century, Barcelona became a city of the modernist movement art & architecture wise, & this gave Barcelona a distinct personality. In the year 1909 Barcelona had a so called “Tragic Week”, in which there was a serious work disturbance over the way soldiers were being recruited for the Moroccan war. During World War 1, Barcelona’s economy & overall bourgeoisie was improved dramatically. At the end of a war, arose a cultural crisis between the Spanish anarchists & the bosses. In the year 1929, Barcelona’s global status was improved when it hosted its second international exhibition. Soon after this, during 1936, the Spanish civil war started. Barcelona was officially on the republican’s side so it received many bombings at the hands of the nationalists. After the civil war Barcelona grew its industrial sector largely. It grew rapidly between the years of 1960 & 1975. When the dictatorship of General Franco fell & the era of democracy came about, Barcelona reclaimed its Generalitat, & became the official capital of Catalonia. Barcelona received another economic boom & in no small part due to to the Spanish entering into European Union, was able to host & organize the 1992 Olympics. The Documented Aboriginals Of Barcelona, Spain There were so very many empires & various kingdoms that have taken over Barcelona that it is unclear as to who exactly were the aboriginals. This is why unfortunately, we cannot give any information on the aboriginals as it is unclear as to who exactly the aboriginals are. The Most Destructive Natural & Man-Caused Disaster That Have Affected Barcelona, Spain For the purpose of this article we will not be including wars, or protests on this list as there are to many of them to say which one was the most destructive. No. 1: Rubí River Flash Floods Of 1962 The flash floods in the Rubí / Ruby river were a severe flash flooding event that took place in the Ruby River, which is located in Barcelona. It is thought to have been the worst flash flooding event in Spanish history. It caused the casualty toll of a confirmed 800, those are only the confirmed deaths. It was largely caused by 200 millimeters (0.656168 feet or 0.2 meters) of rain that fell within the span of 2 hours & poor flood planning. There were many floodplains along the river in which people would live, this is what led to the high number of casualties in the accident. The Economic State Of Barcelona, Spain Barcelona is an economically enriched city & has a stable economy. Barcelona generated approximately 35% of all G.D.P in Catalonia. Barcelona is heavily service based as 89.9% of their economy stems from services. It is mainly based on tourism, retail, commerce, & communication. They have a decently large variety of economic industries to offer in Barcelona. The majority of exports from Barcelona are in the energy & industrial sector. They are most often being shipped to Italy, France, & Germany. Barcelona also uses the Euro just as the rest of Spain does. The average G.D.P per capita is currently 16,270 U.S.D (14,967.11 Euro). The unemployment rate of Barcelona also seems to be decreasing over the last 7 years. There is a current 13.1% total unemployment rate. This rate will most certainly drop lower sooner as Barcelona recently made a public plan that will the way for 120,000 new jobs by 2030. The jobs will be created in the digital & green sector. Directories / Credits https://www.barcelonaturisme.com/wv3/en/page/43/history-of-barcelona.html https://www.introducingbarcelona.com/history https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0022169418307157 https://upcommons.upc.edu/bitstream/handle/2117/176100/flash%20flood_4thVersion.pdf https://urbanresiliencehub.org/city-economy/barcelona/ https://www.politico.eu/sponsored-content/barcelona-explains-its-new-economic-model-for-2030/amp/ Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa

Marine Hall Of Distinction: Doctor Nancy Knowlton This article is a part of our collection known as the Marine Hall Of Distinction. It is a different series from our main monthly series & has no connection to the main monthly series. In this special collection we will discuss marine biologists who we feel have served marine biology & oceanography the most. We do this in order to commemorate these marine biologists & to show gratitude for everything they have contributed to our oceans. This collection has no relation to the main months series. This series publishes on the 25th of every month, shortly after our article on the oceanic environment of a certain region on the 20th. Our marine biologist for this months article, is Doctor Nancy Knowlton. Nancy Knowlton is an American marine biologist, that specializes in Reef Biology & the study of Ocean Acidification. She is a pioneer in the study of reef conservation, & she founded the Center for Marine Biodiversity & Conservation, whose website is as follows: https://cmbc.ucsd.edu/ . Unfortunately, very little is known about her personal life, other then her marital status & a few select other things, but her impact on the field has been so tremendous, that we cannot in good conscious not write an article on her. She currently is the author of one book, titled: Citizens of the Sea: Wondrous Creatures from the Census of Marine Life. It was published in partnership with National Geographic, as their photographers are credited with taking all species photographs for the book. In this article, we will discuss the Early Personal Life & Education Of Nancy Knowlton, The Later Personal Life, & Career Of Nancy Knowlton, & Nancy Knolton’s Awards, Honourables, Achievements & Accomplishments. With that being said, let us delve into Wondrous, Mrs. Nancy Knowlton. The Early Personal Life & Education Of Nancy Knowlton Nancy Knowlton was born on May 30th of 1949, in the state of Illinois. She has stated in an interview that, “I have been interested in science for as long as I can remember. My grandfather was a medical doctor who loved to tease me with scientific enigmas & taught me to fish, and although my parents were not scientists or academics, they always supported me. I still vividly remember the thrill as a kid of seeing the rings of Saturn through my telescope & watching Sputnik cross the sky.” It seems that a major inspiration for her was her grandfather. Aside from this, little else is known about her life before becoming a professional. The Later Personal Life & Career Of Nancy Knowlton Nancy Knowlton attended, & graduated from Harvard University for her undergraduate degree, an AB in Biology. She then attended University of California, Berkeley for her P. h.D in Zoology, where she studied with her colleague Roy Caldwell. She then took a post doctoral fellowship with the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, with Geoff Parker. In the year 1979, she became a professor at Yale University, where she remained until 1984. Before 1980, she primarily studied Snapping Shrimp, & a few non-coral species. She only really made the switch to studying Coral after the Atlantic Hurricane known as “Hurricane Allen”, which was one of the most powerful hurricanes to date. In the wake of Hurricane Allen the majority of the coral beds were flattened, & eviscerated. In the year 1983, she was married to Jeremy Bradford Cook Jackson, whom she would go on to have 2 children. In the year 1984, she transferred to the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, where she would remain employed until 1998. In the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute which was at the San Blas Station, she worked as a scientist examining coral & various other species. During the course of her employment at this Institution, The United States invaded Panama to depose the then President, Manuel Noriega. Due to the invasion, she was temporarily taken hostage by Manuel Noriega’s military troops, along with her 4 year old daughter & 9 other researchers. While being held hostage they were held at gun point & marched across the continental divide. In 1998 she transferred to the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego where she worked as an adjunct professor until 2007. It was here where she founded the Center for Marine Biodiversity & Conservation. In the year 2009, she won the 5th annual Peter Benchley Ocean Award in Excellence in Science. In 2010, she wrote the book titled Citizens of the Sea: Wondrous Creatures from the Census of Marine Life. In the year 2011, she won the 17th Annual Heinz Award, In the Environmental category. She was elected to the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, as well as the U.S National Academy Of Sciences in 2013. In the year 2019, she won the National Marine Sanctuaries Foundation Lifetime Achievement Award. As of 2023, she is the Sant Clair in Marine Science at the Smithsonian National Museum Of Natural History Emerita. Currently, she resides in Brooksville, Maine with her family. Nancy Knowlton’s Awards, Honourables, Achievements, & Accomplishments In the year 2009, she won the 5th annual Peter Benchley Ocean Award in Excellence in Science. In the year 2011, she won the 17th Annual Heinz Award, In the Environmental category. She was elected to the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, as well as the U.S National Academy Of Sciences in 2013. In the year 2019, she won the National Marine Sanctuaries Foundation Lifetime Achievement Award. She wrote, & the majority of the research for the book titled “Citizens of the Sea: Wondrous Creatures from the Census of Marine Life.” She is the Editor in Chief of the Smithsonian’s Oceanic Portal Website. She has discovered numerous species of Coral. She has worked on approximately 114 scientific publications. She is a Aldo Leopold Leadership Fellow. She has served on the American Association for the Advancement & the Coral Reef Alliance. She co-led the census for the Coral Reef Census for the International Census of Marine Life. Directories / Credits Citation 1: “Our People: Nancy Knowlton” Written by Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by The Nature Conservancy. Retrieval Date: July 10th, 2023. https://www.nature.org/en-us/about-us/who-we-are/our-people/nancy-knowlton/ Citation 2: “Nancy Knowlton: American Biologist” Written By Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published By People Pill. Retrieval Date: July 10th, 2023. https://peoplepill.com/people/nancy-knowlton Citation 3: “Corals to Communications: Nancy Knowlton’s Sucess Focusing On The Imminent”, Written by Elizabeth Marino, & Published In August of 2021. Retrieval Date: July 10th, 2023. https://ocean.si.edu/human-connections/careers/corals-communication-nancy-knowltons-success-focusing-imminent Citation 4: “Nancy Knowlton, P.h.D - Publications” Written by Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by Academic Tree. Retrieval Date: July 10th, 2023. https://academictree.org/mareco/publications.php?pid=37733 Citation 5: “Current Biology, Volume 21, No. 8.” Written by Unclear, & published at an unclear date. Published By the Cell Press. Retrieval Date: July 10th, 2023. https://www.cell.com/current-biology/pdf/S0960-9822(11)00206-5.pdf Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

The Oceans Surrounding Barcelona, Spain Today’s article will discuss the oceans surrounding Barcelona, Spain. We went on an expedition to Barcelona in order to do some seagrass related research & things of that nature. Results from this will be published in a new journal of ours called “The Persaud Catalogue: Scientific Journal of Marine Biology”. It will be located on this same website & will just be published in a different area of the website. For more information please look at the article titled “Major Announcement: The Persaud Catalogue: Scientific Journal Of Marine Biology”, published on March 17th. Barcelona is a city in Spain, located on the Mediterranean Sea. It is attached to mainland Spain & it is not apart of an island. The city is known largely for its superb beaches, beautiful artworks, & architectural features. However, Barcelona offer much more then just an exciting city, it has absolutely wonderful areas to snorkel in. Barcelona has a vast selection of marine life, this is largely due to the favourable weather conditions of the areas surrounding Barcelona. It is also extremely active marine wise, with many species being brightly coloured & high in population. For example, whale sightings are very common off the coast of Barcelona from March to October. Also, jellyfish enjoy invading the beaches of Barcelona during the summer months. This is a sign of a healthy marine environment as it is attracting species rather then repelling them. There are often many different snorkelling expeditions for leisure that one can partake in during the summer months in Barcelona. Many swimmers & other marine watchers go to this coast as it is holds some of the best beaches along the Mediterranean. Barcelona specifically has some of the best beaches along the Spanish coast. Many different other recreational activities take place besides snorkelling, often fishing, swimming, & tide-pooling are very popular amongst the tourists. In this article, we will be discussing the Tides, Temperatures, Salinity, Marine Geography, & Basic Information of the oceans surrounding Barcelona, the most prominent marine ecosystems of the oceans surrounding Barcelona, the documented marine flora of the oceans surrounding Barcelona, the documented marine fauna of the oceans surrounding Barcelona, & finally how the marine resources of the oceans surrounding Barcelona have been utilized, & how ocean acidification is affecting Barcelona. With that being said let us discuss the golden beaches of Barcelona. The Tides, Temperatures, Salinity, Marine Geography, & Basic Information Of The Oceans Surrounding Barcelona Barcelona is a city located along the Mediterranean, it has many different beaches, most notably Barceloneta beach. The exact salinity of the Barcelona beaches has not yet been measured. Since Barcelona rests in the Mediterranean, it is likely that the salinity level is approximately 38 parts per thousand or around that number. Salt deposits or brine pools have not been proven to be in existence around the area, however it is highly likely that they do. Salinity is measured in 1,000 grams. For every 1000 grams of water there will be a certain number of grams that are pure salt. This is how salinity is measured. There are also zero current on going factors that would affect the salinity levels in such a harsh way that the salinity would change. The water temperatures for the beaches of Barcelona can be found on a plethora of websites, but the easiest to navigate are https://seatemperature.net , https://seatemperature.info , https://www.watertemperature.net , & finally https://seatemperatures.net . The average yearly water temperature off the coast of Barceloneta beach is 64° Fahrenheit (17.7778° Celsius). This requires wetsuit thickness of 7.5 centimeters thick or more for colder divers. The tides at Barceloneta beach usually don’t reach over 2.3 feet tall. The tides can also be found on many websites, however the easiest to navigate are https://www.tidetime.org , & https://www.tide-forecast.com . There is not a dangerous presence of riptide, nor is there a high surf often. There is a very low pollution level & the beaches are cleaned daily. This means that during the hot afternoons, the beaches are always in splendid condition. The best beach to visit along Barcelona’s coast is Barceloneta beach. There are a total of 515 marine protected areas in Spain’s waters. The largest one that is close to Barcelona is “ Corredor de migración de cetáceos del Mediterráneo”. This translates to “Mediterranean cetacean migration corridor”. It is 4.6% of Spain’s total marine area & it is represents 35% of all marine protected area in Spain. The deepest oceanic point around Barcelona within 5 Nautical / Marine Miles is 554.5 feet deep. The main things that make up the oceanic floor are mud & sand, & occasionally coral. There are very few oceanic mounts around the place. The Most Prominent Marine Ecosystems Of The Oceans Surrounding Barcelona Please note that these are only ecosystems around Barcelona, not any neighbouring large cities. Also, we will not be including Microsystems for the sake of this article. Tidal Areas These tidal areas are areas along the coast. This includes tide pools & other various areas very close to the coast. These areas are in the tidal zone & they fluctuate depending on the tide. Some tide pools will only be filled at high tide, & become empty during low tide. These areas usually have very small crustaceans such as crabs. Occasionally they also contain sea urchins & small fish that will go in during high tide, stay for low tide, then exit during the next high tide. They will also occasionally have mussels. These ecosystems are very small & are easily disturbed. It is important that when venturing along the coast, one avoids stepping in these tide pools as it could disrupt the ecosystem. These types of ecosystems are found close to the coast. This is a hunting ground for very many marine creatures. Seagrass Meadows Seagrass meadows are self explanatory. There are many areas around Barcelona covered with seaweed & algae of various kinds. These types of ecosystems can be found close to the coast or far offshore. They can be found 2 meters (6.56168 feet) deep to 45 meters (147.638 feet) deep. They are found in the highest density to the north of Barcelona, however they are also found to the south. These ecosystems are important as they play a key role in sucking up Carbon Dioxide. They also produce much oxygen, which helps improve the quality of the water. The main species of seagrass is Posidonia Oceanica. These are most often used as fish nurseries, shelter, & food for various different marine creatures. Fringing Coral Reefs Coral reefs are found close to Barcelona, however they are not as plentiful as they should be. They are found semi-close to the coast. They are used as shelter for many marine creatures. These however, are not tropical corals. These are hard calcified corals, or cold-water corals. This is due to the polyps of the coral producing calcium carbonate, within the ectoderm for the purpose of building a firm skeletal structure for the corals. These coral reefs are unfortunately vulnerable due to the high PH level. This will be explained in more death in our last section of this article, “How The Marine Resources Of The Oceans Surrounding Barcelona Have Been Utilized, & How Ocean Acidification Is Affecting Barcelona”. The hard corals are the main kind, however there are also soft corals. The main species of soft coral that is found is known as the Paramuricea Clavata (Mediterranean Gorgonian). The Documented Marine Flora Of The Oceans Surrounding Barcelona There is not very much diversity around Barcelona. However the seagrass that does exist in Barcelona, is very healthy. The main species of seagrass as of now is Posidonia Oceanica (Neptune Grass / Mediterranean Tapeweed). This is a the primary seagrass & it makes up the majority of the seagrass meadows. This type of seagrass is endemic to the Mediterranean sea, meaning it is only found here. They usually will only grow in large patches, & it is rare to find a small patch of this species. It does grow a sort of fruit, that is known as the “olive of the sea”. These fruits are also known as Neptune balls & will often wash up along the coast. These species is not threatened with extinction. This species in particular, is vital to Spain’s marine ecosystems. It is important because it has a very high carbon absorption capacity. It is able to soak up 15 more times carbon dioxide then a similar sized piece of the Amazon Rainforest in South America. These species is usually bright green, however it may turn brown as it ages. It usually grows between 7.87402 inches (20.0000108 centimeters) & 15.748 inches (39.99992 centimeters). Zostera Marina also may grow in this area, however that has yet to be confirmed. The Documented Marine Fauna Of The Oceans Surrounding Barcelona Barcelona is very diverse in its marine life. Many different species such as sharks, dolphins, & various tropical fish. One of the most intriguing of the species around Barcelona, is the Basking shark. Please see the article published on the 10th of July titled “The Basking Shark Of Barcelona, Spain” for more information on this creature. This article can be found using our navigation feature at the top of the webpage. The reason for this variety of marine life is a mixture good climate conditions & an abundance of food such as krill & seaweed. Many larger creatures often do not stay in Barcelona year-round. They will often migrate throughout the Mediterranean. However smaller creatures, such as fish, will often stay & not migrate from the Barcelona area. With that being said, let us Epinephelus Marginatus (Dusky Grouper), Sphyraena Sphyraena (European Barracuda), Dicentrarchus Labrax (European Seabass), Octopus Vulgaris (Common Octopus), Argyrosomus Regius (Shade-fish), Boops Boops (Bogue), Cetorhinus Maximus (Basking Shark), Conger Conger (European Conger), Coryphaena Hipperus (Dolphin-fish / Mahi-Mahi), Diplodus vulgaris (Common two-banded Seabream), Katsuwonus pelamis (Skipjack tuna), Muraena Helena (Mediterranean moray), Sarpa Salpa (Salema porgy), Scorpaena Porcus (Black Scorpionfish), & finally Scorpaena Scrofa (Red Scorpionfish). How The Marine Resources Of The Oceans Surrounding Barcelona Have Been Utilized, & How Ocean Acidification Is Affecting Barcelona The majority of the resources extracted from Barcelona were fish or other marine creatures. Personal & commerical fishing are incredibly common throughout the areas around Barcelona. This could cause a crisis similar to the crown of thorns environmental disaster at Tutuila, American Samoa. This also causes general food chain issues. Along with that, if we overfish the area, we may see a local extinction of some species entirely. Ocean acidification, unfortunately has a large impact around Barcelona. Ocean acidification is caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Atmospheric carbon dioxide levels have increased, largely because of human-caused burning of fossil fuels, & deforestation, for the past 150 years. When carbon dioxide contacts sea water, it forms carbonic acid. Carbonic acid gives off positive H+ ions, which causes increased oceanic H+ concentrations & decreased oceanic Ph. This PH difference, is causing coral to bleach at a rapid rate. This is utterly horrifying as if we do not attempt to either lower carbon emissions or reduce the effect somehow, we could lose all of the coral reefs around Barcelona entirely. Directories / Credits https://mpatlas.org/zones/68816523 ScienceDirecthttps://www.sciencedirect.com › piiDistribution of seagrass communities north of Barcelona, Northwestern ... https://www.barcelona-metropolitan.com/api/amp/travel/guide-to-underwater-life-costa-brava/ Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa ReplyForward

Ode To Oceanography: An Antique Map Of Saint Lawrence River This article will be the first article in the “Ode To Oceanography” Series. This series will publish on the 15th of every month, until we run out of antique nautical maps to analyze, though that will not be for many decades. Once that happens, we will keep the series running, but we will change the article format. In these articles, will take an antique nautical map & analyze it in its entirety. These maps will not strictly be on open oceanic waters, they may be on rivers or occasionally, bays. We will also discuss the methods that may have been used to make the map, considering the time period, & the country of origin. These maps will come from a variety of sources, though they will mainly come from Maps Of Antiquity, a wonderful New England map shop. These maps will come from varying time periods, & will not be in any particular historical order. Today’s Map that will be analyzed, is an antique nautical map of the Saint Lawrence River, located in Quebec Canada. This river runs from the Gulf of Saint Lawrence to above the province of Quebec, it is also in french so we will attempt to decipher it. In this article we will discuss the map itself & the translation of certain sections of the map, & a surface level analysis on this antique nautical map. With that being said let us delve into the Saint Lawrence River. The Map Itself On the large emblem on the map, it reads “Carte Du Cours Du Fleuve De S’Laurent, Depuis son embouchure jusqu'au dessous Québec.” Which translates to “Map Of The Course Of the S’Lawrence River, From its mouth to below Quebec.” It is extremely hard to decipher, as the handwriting has blurred with time, & it is of course in French. It also reads on the river “Fleuve De S’Laurent” which translates to “Lawrence River”. On the map you can see mainland Quebec, & labelled as “Isle De’Anticosti” is Anticosti island. You can also see the Gaspé Peninsula, labelled in french as “Gaspesie”. On this peninsula you can see mountains drawn, you can see mountains drawn down all of New Brunswick. There are many labels in french for various parts of the river, & parts of the coast, but they are much to small to decipher. An Analysis Of The Nautical Map This map was made in the year 1758. It is unknown where this map was found exactly, but it can only be assumed that it was in found Quebec, as the map is in french. The map is of the Saint Lawrence river, from its mouth to just Below Quebec. This map has no particular name. The map has no sea monsters, legends, or anything of that nature labeled on the map, that I am able to tell. The mountain of known as Mont Jacques Cartier is outlined on the map very prominently. There are no wind patterns shown on the map, or wave patterns. The map is surprisingly accurate, & very few small islets were left off the map. This map was most likely printed using the engraving technique. This is a technique which was the most popular at the time, & the easiest way to mass produce maps. In this technique, there are 5 jobs, the mapmaker, the engraver, the printer, the papermaker, & the colourist. The first step in this process is that the mapmaker will go out & make a hand-drawn map of the area where the map will encompass. Effectively, the mapmaker is the informant who makes the first copy. After this, the engraver will create a design of the map in reverse on a metal, usually copper, surface. Usually there would only be 1-2 plates used, however it differs depending on the size of the map. After the copper plate is made, the printer will heat the copper panel, & then proceed to lather it with ink. They will then wipe the copper panel down to the point where ink is only on the grooves of the panel. Then after this, the printer will press damp paper onto the ink, & hang it up to dry. To conclude, the colourist will touch up the map & decorate it by adding in details, such as shorelines & shoals. Directories / Credits All credit for this map analyzed today goes to Maps Of Antiquity, a wonderful New England map shop. To purchase this map, & any other maps, please visit mapsofantiquity.com . To be clear, this is not an advertisement for Maps Of Antiquity, as we do not have a partnership with them. Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

The Basking Shark Of Barcelona (Cetorhinus Maximus) This month’s article series, will discuss the oceanic areas surrounding the Spanish city of Barcelona. We went on an expedition to Barcelona in order to do some seagrass related research & things of that nature. Results from this will be published in a new journal of ours called “The Persaud Catalogue: Scientific Journal of Marine Biology”. It will be located on this same website & will just be published in a different area of the website. For more information please look at the article titled “Major Announcement: The Persaud Catalogue: Scientific Journal Of Marine Biology”, published on March 17th. Barcelona is a city in Spain, located on the Mediterranean Sea. It is attached to mainland Spain & it is not apart of an island. The city is known largely for its superb beaches, beautiful artworks, & architectural features. However, Barcelona offer much more then just an exciting city, it has absolutely wonderful areas to snorkel in. Barcelona has a vast selection of marine life, this is largely due to the favourable weather conditions of the areas surrounding Barcelona. It is also extremely active marine wise, with many species being brightly coloured & high in population. For example, whale sightings are very common off the coast of Barcelona from March to October. However, there is one animal in particular that stands out compared to all else, this creature is known as the Basking Shark. The Basking shark is a species of shark found throughout the Atlantic, that can open its mouth up to a meter in diameter. It is a filter feeder which is the reason for this otherwise strange feature. What that means, is that the Basking Shark does not hunt as most other sharks do, in fact they don’t even eat fish. Basking sharks consume microscopic organisms & krill by opening their large mouths & using a suction power to pull the creatures in. Once finished, the shark will close its mouth & swallow all food. It does not have the ability swallow anything other then these organisms so there is no need to fear it. In this article, we will discuss the life of the Basking Shark, The mating practices, tactics, cycles, habits, & processes of the Basking Shark, the distribution of the Basking Shark, & finally, the scientific detailings of the Basking Shark. With that being said, let us delve into the widest-mouthed shark. The Life Of The Basking Shark The basking shark was first described in 1765 by a certain Gunnerus. It was caught in Norway & brung from Norway to Gunnerus as a specimen. They are 7.9 meters (25.9186 feet) long on average & weigh approximately 4.65 tons each. Basking sharks can live for up to 50 years, this does not change based on gender from current knowledge. The intelligence of a basking shark is somewhat understudied & little is known about their mental capacity. They seem to be friendly towards humans & not have any malicious intentions. They seem to have the same capacity of most other shark species. It is unknown how long this species itself has existed for however, the earliest fossil records of something shark-like, was from 450 million years ago during the ordovician period. Using this information, it is safe to assume that it evolved sometime after the ordovician period. They are not known to approach humans at all. They are also not aggressive towards humans whatsoever at all. This species of shark is not territorial from what it looks like as they are highly migratory & will not stay in one place. Basking sharks are extremely social creatures & are usually not seen or found alone. They will be found basking in small groups of 2-3 however they have been known to form a large group of 500 sharks. They are highly migratory creatures & often will not be very territorial. They do not sleep as we think of it, they instead have active & resting periods. During the active periods they will be active & swim about engulfing krill. During their resting periods they will not swim & be restful, they will still be awake & conscious. Being restful means they will swim to the bottom of the oceanic floor not move. It is unknown how long they have restful periods for. They can swim at speeds of 2.5 to 4 miles per hour. It has been discussed how they eat, & what they eat, however it has not been discussed how much they eat. It is unclear as to how much exactly they eat, however it is estimated at 1,000,000 individual plankton. This may way several hundred pounds. They are not cannibalistic in ant capacity whatsoever. They do not have a very high metabolism. They do not have a specific feeding time either, they will consume whenever they feel they need the sustenance. The Basking Shark has no known predators that will actively hunt them. White sharks are known to consume basking sharks remains, how it is unknown if they will actively hunt them. It is extremely unlikely that they do actively hunt them. The basking shark is a light grey colour & round. They have a long dorsal fin placed in the center of their body so this is a good identifier. They have a round & short snout as well as an extremely large mouth. Their gills present themselves as large slits on the sides of the sharks body near their snout. They are currently classified as endangered with their population decreasing. They also have, no known cultural significance to any particular population. However, they did cause a general scare during various time periods, this can be seen in that many stories of sea serpents & various other oceanic monsters, can be attributed to this creature. The Mating Practices, Tactics, Cycles, Processes, & Habits Of The Basking Shark Basking sharks will reproduce via sexual reproduction. They are not hermaphroditic in any capacity whatsoever. The females' eggs are fertilized via internal fertilization from the male. They are not monogamous creatures. The actual mating ritual that they perform is completely unknown & has not been observed. It is unclear as to what age they sexually mature at, however, it is estimated at 18. This number is unconfirmed though. This number would go for both genders. They do not appear to have a specific mating season. This species has been confirmed to lay eggs. It will take approximately 2-3 years for an egg to hatch as this is the normal gestation period. This species is ovoviviparous meaning that the mother shall hold the eggs in her womb until they are ready to hatch. The embryos will develop inside of the egg’s individually then will come out. This is a common trait among amphibious species. The eggs will develop in the mother's womb for 2-3 years then she will lay them. Soon after they will hatch & it is unclear whether the female will take part in her pups life after this. It is unknown exactly how many babies will be laid during this process. The pups are then born in the summer, as being born in this time of year gives the highest chance of survival. After this, the female will mate every 18 months to 3 years after pregnancies. It is currently unknown at what time they are the most fertile. The Distribution Of The Basking Shark The Basking shark is not exclusive to Barcelona, it is found across the Pacific & the Atlantic. From areas such as New Zealand, to Canada, to the Sea Of Japan, to the Mediterranean. They are found as deep as 2,000 meters (6561.68 feet). They are highly migratory & will travel often in their lives. This is necessary as if they stop swimming they will asphyxiate & die. They do have seasonal migration patterns however we have yet to map them completely. They will migrate to southern oceans during the winter months, this is the only known thing about their seasonal migration pattern. The Scientific Detailings Of The Basking Shark The most interesting part of the basking shark, is undoubtedly its large mouth cavity. It is able to do this as it has many bones in its mouth that allow the mouth to expand. The shark has extremely small teeth, that are all curved backwards. They have 6 rows of teeth on their upper jaw & 9 rows of teeth on their lower jaw. They seem to have 100 teeth in each row of teeth. They have 1,500 teeth in total by the time they reach maturity. These teeth are each 1 quarter of an inch long. These teeth are in the shape of a conical cusp, & each tooth looks almost identical to each other. They also have rather strange looking skeletons due to their mouth bones, as well as due to the fact that their skull is incredibly small compared to their body. Very little is known about their brain function & their intelligence. They do not have any specialized organs besides gills. Their gill slits are incredibly large. They do also possess something known as gill rakers which exist in the snout. These help with filter feeding. Their liver is humongous & accounts for approximately 25% of their total body weight. However this does end up helping with the buoyancy of the shark, as the liver is high in squalene, a low-density hydrocarbon that helps give the shark neutral buoyancy. Their phylum is known as Chordata meaning that they developed these 5 characteristics all species under the phylum of chordata develop 5 similar characteristics either In adulthood or as juveniles. Over 60,000 species are categorized under Chordata at the time of publishing. The characteristics that they develop include, a notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, endostyle or thyroid, pharyngeal Slits, & a post-anal tail. Their class is Chondrichthyes. This is a class of fish that are primarily composed of cartilage. This class can be compared to the class Osteichthyes, which is a class of fish who are primarily composed of bone. A few universal characteristics for any fish in the class Chondrichthyes is that they all are jawed vertebrates, they have paired fins, paired nares, scales, & a heart with chambers in a series. The Basking Shark is one of the biggest species in this class. Their sub-class is that of Elasmobranchii. Their order is that of Lamniformes. This is an order of sharks. A few universal characteristics for creatures classified within this order are that, they possess two dorsal fins, an anal fin, five gill slits, eyes without nictitating, & a mouth cavity that extends behind the eyes. Creatures from this order also usually maintain a higher body temperature then the water surrounding them. This order has the largest macropredatory shark to ever exist, the Otodus Megalodon. Their family is Cetorhinidae. This is a family of filter feeding sharks, which are commonly known as basking sharks. This family contains 3 genera, 2 of which are completely extinct. The Basking Shark, is the only discovered species that is in this family. Their genus is Cetorhinus. The Basking Shark is the only known species in this genus. Their binomial name is Cetorhinus. Directories / Credits Sea Wonder: Basking Shark | National Marine Sanctuary Foundation https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/species-especes/profiles-profils/baskingshark-requinpelerin-atl- https://oceana.org/marine-life/basking-shark/ Does a Basking Shark Have Teeth? - American Oceans https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/discover-fish/species-profiles/cetorhinus-maximus/ Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors

This article is a part of our second newsletter titled, The Persaud Catalogue Scientific Journal of Marine Biology. In this journal, we will publish information concerning the various marine flora & fauna of certain places. This newsletter, will publish sporadically, & not on a timed basis like The Persaud Catalog. This journal is in affiliation with The Persaud Catalog, however it is a separate entity. We sent 2 agents out to a small beach in Ventura County California, called Mondo’s Beach. They came back with 8 different specimens of Seagrass that were found on this beach, the results of which will be published here. Unlike the Malibu Lagoon survey, this one will not be conducted annually, & is a singular survey. The Official Seagrass Survey Of Mondo’s Beach All samples were taken on the 26th of June at between 5:39 PM & 6:31 PM. This was closest to low tide on that specific day, so the results may differ from if we took our specimens at high tide. In order of most found species to least found species the list is as follows: No. 1. Zostera Marina, No. 2. Bull Kelp, No. 3. Spongey Purple Seagrass, No. 4. Orange Pseudo Kelp, No. 5. Purple Leathery Seagrass, No. 6. Feathery Brown Seagrass, No. 7. Octopus Grass, & Finally No. 8. Ulva Lactuca (Sea Lettuce). Species No. 1: Zostera Marina (Seawrack / Common Eelgrass) Without a doubt, Zostera Marina was the most commonly found species on this beach. Additionally, it was in an incredibly high density on the beach, with mats of seagrass weighing 4 pounds or more. It was found in the highest density towards the northern side of the beach, but it was still plentiful throughout the entirety of the beach. It seems that, there were more mats of seagrass on the northern side, & more smaller specimens on the southern side of the beach. The coordinates of our specimen in particular are 34°19’15” North, & 119°22’27” West, 103° East. In the casing that we placed it in, the specimen unfortunately broke into 2 main stems. The first one measured 120 centimeters (47.2441 inches), & the other one measured at 84.5 centimeters (33.26772 inches). Species No. 2: Possibly Corallina Officinalis (Common Coraline) This species was most likely one of the third least common on Mondo’s Beach. Its density was highest towards the northern side of the beach it seems, & was very sparsely if at all found on the southern side of the beach. Our specimen of this species measured approximately at 24 centimeters (9.44882 inches) long, though it broke in transport so it is quite hard to precisely say. The exact coordinates at which our specimen was found are as follows; 34°19’15 North, 119°22’26” West, 212° South West. We could not exactly tell what kind of seagrass this was, & was could not say for certain that it is Corallina officinalis. Species No. 3: Nereocystis Luetkaena (Bull Kelp / Bullwhip Kelp / Ribbon Kelp / Bladder Wrack) This species was the second most plentiful throughout the entire beach. Some specimens were too large to fit into our vials, so we could only get the smaller specimens. This species was undoubtedly the largest species in length on the beach, & some specimens of this species measured over 6 feet long. This species still is not as common as Zostera Marina by a large margin, but it is far more plentiful than all other species on this list. It is found most densely towards the central areas of the beach, & the far north areas of the beach, & tends to be found sparsely if at all on the far south side of the beach. The coordinates for our specimen were 34°19’16” North 119°22’31” West, or 223° South West. Our specimen for this species measured approximately 57 centimeters (22.4409 inches) long. It had long flat, ridged leaves, with stems connecting them to one another. These stems occasionally have small fruit on them. Species No. 4: Unidentified White Leathery Species Of Seagrass This species was the second least common found on the beach. It was only found in mats of mainly Zostera Marina, & was not found very often. It is in the highest density on the south side of the beach, & is sparsely found if at all on the north & central side of the beach. The coordinates at which our specimen was found are 34°19’16” North 119°22°29” West, 203 South West. Our specimen for this species measured at approximately 34.5 centimeters (13.58268 inches) long. We could not pinpoint what species this was, so we are labeling it as unidentified. It had tough white leaves, with red stems connecting them all. It looked vaguely like the skin of an octopus. Species No. 5: Ulva Lactuca (Sea Lettuce) This species was the least common on the beach by a long shot. We could not find full scale leaves of it, just torn off parts of various different leaves that were caught in a clump of Zostera Marina. The coordinates at which our specimen was found are 34°19’16” North 119°22°29” West, 203 South West. Our specimen was found in the exact same mat as the (octopus grass). We could only find 2 very small traces of this species the first of which measured at 11 centimeters (4.33071 inches) long, 8 centimeters (3.14961 inches) long. Species No. 6: Macrocystis Pyrifera (Giant Kelp / Bladder Kelp) This species was the fourth most common species found on the beach. It looked very similar to bull kelp upon first glance, however it was orange. The exact coordinates at which our specimen of this species was found are 34°19'16” North 119°22’24” West, 147° South East. Our specimen of this species was measured at 55 centimeters (21.6535 inches) long. Species No. 7: Unidentified Brown Feathery Seagrass This species was the third most uncommon species found on the beach. This species is found most commonly on the south side of the beach, & is found sparsely if at all on the north side. The coordinates for our specimen of this species are 34°19’16” North & 119°22” 34 West. Our specimen of this species measured at approximately 6.5 inches (16.51 centimeters) in length. This specimen had long feathery brown leaves that grew from one central area, measuring at 4 to 6 inches (10.16 to 15.24 centimeters) long, each. Species No. 8: Chondracanthus Exasperatus (Turkish Towel) This species is the second most uncommonly found species found on Mondo’s Beach. It is found densely on the far south side & is sparsely found across the more central southern areas of the beach. The exact coordinates for our specimen of this species are 34°19’16” North, 119°22’33” West, 66° North East. This specimen of this species measured at approximately 10.16 centimeters (4 inches) long. Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

The Documented History Of Saint Lucia Todays article will discuss the documented history of Saint Lucia. Saint Lucia is an island in the Caribbean, it exists in the lesser Antilles & is a part of the island group called the “Windward Islands”. From its closest pointoday'sT, it is 186.04 Nautical/Marine miles (214.091009 miles or 344.54608 kilometers) from mainland Venezuela. It is also 1314.27 Nautical/Marine miles (1512.434905 miles or 2434.02804 kilometers) from mainland Florida. Its history was widely dictated by the English, similar to the surrounding islands. Saint Lucia has 10 current municipalities & 150 inhabited towns. It has an incredibly rich history with multiple indigenous tribes & many wars over the course of time. In this article we will discuss the discovery & documented history of Saint Lucia as a whole, The known aboriginals of Saint Lucia, the disaster history of Saint Lucia, & finally a segment on the Saint Lucian economy. The Documented History Of Saint Lucia Before Colonization Saint Lucia was inhabited by 3 main indigenous peoples before being discovered by the Europeans. These tribes were the Arawaks, the Ciboney, & The Kalingo / Caribs. These tribes trace back to 1000 B.CC..B on Saint Lucia. The Ciboney were the first people to inhabit Saint Lucia. They most likely arrived in approximately 1000 B.C. However they did not document much & did not leave many things behind. It is not known why they left. After this, the Arawaks came from northern South America. They came between the years of 200 & 400 A.D. They used pottery for numerous things & left behind large amounts of it. Many Arawak archeological sights contain large amounts of pottery from this age. It is not fully known what the Arawaks called the island however it is believed that they called it Louanalao. This translates into “Land Of The Iguanas”. This was due to the high population density of iguanas in Saint Lucia. These Arawaks were rather peaceful & built canoes for various purposes. They often fished & learned how to make black earth. Black earth is used for agricultural purposes, it is made with a mix of charcoal & soil. This leads us to believe they had rather industrious farms. They did not wear clothes & chose to live without them. They spoke a variety of different languages. Their religious beliefs centered heavily around nature spirits & their ancestors. Every different settlement that they made had complex social structures & hierarchies. After this, the Caribs / Kalinago arrived & were not peaceful toward the Arawaks. They often fought, kidnapped, murdered, & stole from the Arawaks. They spoke many different languages, however “Island Carib” was the most popular. Their religious beliefs were relatively unknown but they were polytheistic. They also had canoes however instead of fishing, they were used as warships. These war ships could hold over 100 people & were fast enough to catch a European sailing ship. The Caribs became infamous for their ferociousness in battle. They also had a complex societal structure, however the Saint Lucian Caribs did not seem to have any kind of government. The Caribs killed off most of the male Arawaks & took the women to integrate them into Carib society. They originally called the island Hewanarau. This translates into “There where the iguanas are found”. After Colonization 16th Century Christopher Columbus may have seen the island on his fourth voyage in the year 1502 as he sailed to Martinique from the south. However, this island was not mentioned in his log so it is unknown. Juan de la Cosa a Spanish cartographer did note a land mass that was in Saint Lucia’s area on a map from 1500. However, this may have not been Saint Lucia, in which case he would have discovered it in 1504. He notes it as “El Falcon” on the map. A Spanish Cedula (order) mentions an island in the approximate area of Saint Lucia that existed within the Spanish domain. Additionally, a globe made in the Vatican in the year 1520 lists the island as Sancta Lucia. A later Spanish map from the year of 1529 lists the island as S. Luzia. After this, in the 1550’s, a french pirate by the name of François le Clerc / Jambe de Bois set up a base of sorts on the islet of Pigeon Island. His reason for doing so was that he was attacked by Spanish ships. At the time, the islet was not connected with the main isle of Saint Lucia. 17th Century In 1600, Spanish explorers arrived & officially settled the french pirates settlement, calling it Vieux Fort. This still exists as a city to this day. In 1605, a group of 67 english settlers on a vessel known as Oliphe Blossome were thrown off course from their original destination of Guyana. They ended up taking refuge on the island of Saint Lucia & starting a settlement. They were welcomed by the Carib chief known as Anthonie. Unfortunately, after only a few weeks, only 19 of the colonists were left alive. This was mainly due to attacks from the other carib chief Augraumart. After that they abandoned the settlement & fled the island. In the year of 1626, the company of Compagnie de Saint-Christopher was chartered by Cardinal Richelieu. He was the chief minister of Louis the XIII of France. His reasoning for this charter was his that he wished to colonize the area of the lesser Antilles that were between the eleventh & eighteenth parallels. In 1627, a royal patent was issued to a certain James Hay 1st Earl Carlisle by Charles The 1st Of England granting rights over to the Caribbean islands that existed between the 10° & 20° north latitude, creating a competing claim. In 1635, the company of Compagnie de Saint-Christopher was reorganized under a new patent for the Compagnie des ÎIes de I’Amerique. This gave the company all the properties & administration of the former company & the rights to continue colonizing neighboring vacant islands to Saint Lucia. There are English documents claiming that colonists from Bermuda came & settled the island in 1635. However, a French patent claims that french settlers settled the island on the 8th of March 1635. The alleged leading settler was Pierre Belain d’Esnambuc. Captain Judlee planned to establish a settlement at modern day Praslin Bay with 300-400 Englishmen. Unfortunately, they were attacked over the course of three weeks by the local Caribs. The outcome ended up being the the few remaining colonists fleeing on the 12th of October 1640. In 1642, Louis XIII of France extended the charter of with relation to Compagnie des Îles de l'Amérique for 20 more years. Afterwards in 1643, du Parquet, who had become Governor of Martinique, noted that the British had abandoned the idea of colonizing Saint Lucia. With that, he began making plans for a settlement. In June 1650, he sent French explorer Louis de Kerengoan, Sieur de Rousselan & 40 Frenchmen to establish a fort at the mouth of the Rivière du Carenage. This would have been near present day Castries. As the Compagnie faced bankruptcy due to little interest from the public, du Parquet sailed to France in September 1650. They then purchased the sole proprietorship for Grenada, the Grenadines, Martinique, & what they named “Sainte-Lucie” for 41,500 dollars. The French drove off an attempted English invasion in 1659, but allowed the Dutch to build a redoubt near Vieux Fort Bay in 1654. On the 6th April 1663, the Caribs sold Saint Lucia to a man named Francis Willoughby, the 5th Baron Willoughby of Parham. He was the English governor of the Caribbean. He decided to invade the island with 1100 Englishmen & 600 Amerindians in 5 ships-of-war in 17 pirogues forcing the 14 French defenders to flee. However, the majority of the English colony succumbed to a disease. The French then took over again as the English kept failing to settle the island. However the English came back in June 1664 & fully retained possession of the isle until the 20th of October 1665 when diplomacy ended up gave the island back to France. The English decided to invade again in 1665, but disease, famine, & the Caribs viscous attacks caused them to ultimately decide to flee in January of 1666. The Treaty of Breda gave control of the island back to the French. The English raided the island in 1686, but relinquished all claims in a 1687 treaty & the 1697 Treaty Of Ryswick. 18th Century The British had their headquarters in Barbados & the French were centred on Martinique. They had both found that Saint Lucia had grown appealing for their purposes. This was after the slave-based sugar cane industry developed in 1763. During the 18th century the island changed ownership or was declared neutral territory a dozen times or more. This may have been entirely avoided if international laws on new territories existed at this time period. Even though it changed ownership the French settlements remained & the island turned into an unofficial French colony well into the 18th century. In 1722, George the I of Great Britain granted both islands of Saint Lucia & Saint Vincent to John Montagu, the 2nd Duke Of Montagu. He in turn decided to appoint a man named Nathaniel Uring who was an English merchant, sea captain & explorer as the deputy-governor. Uring went to the islands with a group of seven ships, & established settlement at Petit Carenage, which would be nearby modern day Castries. Uring was unable to get enough support from British warships or from other British settlers. This ended in him & the new colonists being promptly run out by the French. His ability to start an English colony was due to the treaty of choc which made Saint Lucia a neutral territory. A census conducted on Saint Lucia in 1730 showed 463 occupants of the island, which included just 125 Europeans, 37 Caribs, 175 slaves, & the rest were free africans or people of mixed race. The French took control of the island in 1744 for their purposes. In 1745, the island had a population of 3455, which included 2573 slaves. The increase in population by so much was most likely due to the french farming sugar cane. During the Seven Years War Britain occupied Saint Lucia in 1762, but ultimately gave the island back at the Treaty of Paris on the 10th of February 1763. Britain occupied the island again in 1778 after the Grand Battle Of Cul de Sac during the American Revolution. British Admiral George Rodney then built Fort Rodney from 1779 to 1782. In 1779 another census was conducted which showed that the island's population had increased to 19,230, which included 16,003 slaves who were working 44 sugar plantations. Due to the high density of people, the Great Hurricane Of 1780 killed about 800. The island was restored to French rule in 1784, as a consequence of the Peace of Paris. After this, it was discov that 300 plantations had been abandoned & a thousand Maroon people lived in the interior. In January 1791, during the French Revolutionary war on first coalition, the National Assembly sent four Commissaries to St. Lucia to spread the revolution philosophy. In August, the slaves began to abandon their estates & Governor de Gimat of France fled. In December 1792, Lieutenant Jean-Baptiste Raymond de Lacrosse arrived with revolutionary pamphlets, & the poor whites as well as free people of color began to arm themselves as a collective force called the patriots. On the 1st of February 1793, France declared war on England & Holland, & General Nicolas Xaiver de Ricard took over as Governor of Saint Lucia. The Convention Nationale abolished enslavement of any race on the 4th of February 1794. Unfortunately Saint Lucia fell to a British invasion led by Vice Admiral John Jervis on the 1st of April 1794. The residential area of Morne Fortune became Fort Charlotte. Soon, a patriot army of resistance known as L'Armee Francaise dans les Bois , began to fight back. This ended up in beginning the 1st Brigand War. A short time afterwards the Royal army invaded in response to the concerns of the wealthy plantation owners, who wanted to keep sugar production going. On the 21st of February 1795 a group of rebels who were led by Victor Hugues, defeated a battalion of British troops. For the next four months, a group of recently freed slaves known as the Brigands forced out by the British army. As well as every white slave-owner from the isle. The English were eventually defeated on June 19th of the same year & fled from the island. The Royalist planters fled with army, leaving the remaining now free Saint Lucians to enjoy “L’Année de la Liberté” which translates to “The year of freedom. Gaspard Goyrand, a Frenchman who was Saint Lucia's Commissary later became Governor of Saint Lucia, & proclaimed the abolition of slavery. Goyrand decision for the corrupt planters were to bring them to trial. This ended in several losing their heads on the guillotine, which had been brought to Saint Lucia with the troops. He then proceeded to reorganize the islands government. The British continued to harbour dreams of recapturing the island, these would come true in April 1796 when Sir Ralph Abercrombie & his troops attempted to capture the island. During the invasion, Castries was burned & destroyed, & after approximately one month of battles the French surrendered at Fort Charlotte on the 25th of May 1796. General Moore was elevated to the position of Governor of Saint Lucia by Abercrombie & was left with 5,000 troops to complete the task of subduing the entire isle. A British Brigadier General John Moore was appointed Military Governor on the 25th of May 1796, & engaged in the Second Brigand War. Some Brigands began to surrender in 1797, when promised they would not be returned to slavery. Final freedom & the end to hostilities came with total Emancipation in the year of 1838. 19th Century The 1802 Treaty of Amiens caused the isle to be restored to French control, & at this time it was decided by Napoleon Bonaparte to reinstate slavery. The British regained the island in June of 1803, when British Commodore Samuel Hood defeated French Governor Brigadier General Antoine Noguès. The island was officially ceded to Britain in 1814. Additionally in 1838, Saint Lucia was incorporated into the British Windward Islands administration, which at the time was headquartered in Barbados. This lasted until 1885, when the capital was moved to the main island of Grenada. 20th Century During the Battle Of The Caribbean World War 2, a German U-boat vessel attacked & sank two British battleships in the Castries harbour on the 9th of March 1942. Increasing self-government has been marked as the most liberating thing for Saint Lucia's 20th-century history. A 1924 constitution gave the island its first form of representative government, with a minority of elected members in the previously all nominated legislative council. Universal adult suffrage was introduced in 1951, & elected members became a majority of the council. Ministerial government was introduced in 1956, & in the year 1958 Saint Lucia joined the short lived West Indies Federation, a semi-autonomous dependency of the United Kingdom. When the federation collapsed in 1962, due to Jamaica's withdrawal, a smaller federation was briefly attempted. After the failure of that federation, the United Kingdom & the 9 windward & leeward islands of Grenada, Saint Vincent, Dominica, Antigua, Saint Kitts, Saint Nevis, Anguilla & Saint Lucia developed a novel form of cooperation called associated statehood. In 1957, bananas officially exceeded sugar as a major export crop. As an associated state of the United Kingdom from 1967 to 1979, St. Lucia had full responsibility for internal self government but left its external affairs and defence responsibilities to the United Kingdom. This interim arrangement ended on February 22, 1979, when St. Lucia achieved complete independence from the United Kingdom. The Aboriginals Of Saint Lucia The Kalingo / Carib Indigenous Peoples The Caribs of Saint Lucia were an indigenous Amerindian of the Caribbean lesser Antilles. They are also known as the Kalingo or Kalina. They also lived through South America. They spoke a language that is modernly known as Island Carib which is classified as a highly endangered language. They were one of the least peaceful tribes of the Caribbean. They had many warlike tactics & were believed to have mandatory combat training. They were taller, bulkier, & stronger then the Arawaks due to the emphasis of being a warrior & being able to defend their home. They utilized their marine resources often & had a strong fishing industry. Fish was one of the most common foods, they also were believed to have bred some fish. They had large boats which were most similar to a modern day Canoe, these boats could hold up to 12 persons. However, their largest warships could hold up to 100 persons. These boats looked similar to a modern day dug out canoe. However, they also had the ability to use & build sails. They used these to raid the Arawaks as well as to fish. They also utilized the ocean in other ways often. They fought with the other tribes of The lesser Antilles such as the Arawaks who were relatively peaceful. They hunted mammals as well. They revered the bones of their elders or family members & they burnt off fat from their enemies or prisoners of war during battle rituals. They were labelled as cannibals & savages by the Spanish & British on their individual conquests, this was in an effort to justify conquering their lands & enslaving them. The modern day word cannibal, originates from the word Carib due to their alleged cannibalistic practices. They invented certain types of primitive barbecues as well which they most likely used to barbecue the Arawaks. However, if they were cannibalistic they did not consume the entire body. Allegedly, their reasoning for this was that if they consumed a little bit of their enemy after they were dead, they would assume the characteristics of that person. Also, there is evidence to believe that early Caribs were not cannibals. They were on average approximately 5 feet 5 inches. They had a brown hue to their skin similar to that of a modern day Latin American person. They did not appear to wear clothing of any kind. The women would paint their skin with a red dye known as Roucou which is made from the extract of the seeds of the Achiote tree. The women also circled their eyes with black pigment. The male’s would also painted their bodies and on occasion wore feathered headdresses, jewelry & piercings of all kinds through their lips, and large hoop jewelry through their noses. Nose piercings were fairly common among both genders. The male’s also wore the Caracoli which was a necklace of small bones along with the teeth of defeated enemies from which a crescent-shaped bone carved ornament was suspended. The Caracoli necklace was worn to represent the courage of the wearer, it was typically worn by men & there isn’t much evidence that it was worn by women. The women also commonly lived in different houses from the men. Arts were common among the Caribs. Basket weaving was a common type of art that was done both for function & for art. Pottery was quite common among Caribs as well. They had many different structural styles of pottery. It is also important to note that most men spoke Island Carib languages, however women spoke mostly Arawakan languages. They often used bow & arrows when hunting or fighting. This weaponry unfortunately was not very helpful during the initial British Invasion. However, their boats were. They were infamous for using one of their war ships to catch European boats. This is one of the main reasons as to why Saint Lucia wasn’t colonized for such a long time. They did not have a social or societal construct & did not have any form of government. Little is known about their religion however it is believed that they practiced polytheism. The Arawak Indigenous Peoples The Arawak Indigenous peoples existed throughout the lesser Antilles & heavily throughout northern South America. They were also known as the Taino people. They spoke many different dialects of Arawaken languages. They were quite peaceful & often avoided to engage in combat. They mostly only fought in defence or if they were being directly threatened. They often did not fight with other Arawak populations. They often practiced farming of corn, beans, pepper, sweet potatoes, ground nuts, & cassava. They also practiced fishing with nets & spear fishing. They used weaving techniques to build the nets. They also bred their own fish in individual ponds. They hunt any animals that were available using spears, bows, & blow guns. They however, did not use the pelts to make clothes. Most of the time Arawaks stood naked, with men occasionally wearing loincloths. The women wore short skirts & beaded shell necklaces. They also did not make shoes of any kind. On occasions, they would paint their bodies various colours such as black, white, or red. They were described as being of medium height by Columbus, which most likely means approximately 5 feet & 3 inches. They also generally were quite slim in build. Their skin was a dark tanned colour. Their hair was a black colour & was corse. They often wore jewellery & ornaments on their neck, ears, lips, & noses. These ornaments varied in material however they were often made with clay, shell, or cotton. Some of these ornaments were braided into hair & used as hair pieces as well. They did have social & societal constructs, with each individual group of Arawaks having a chief. For fun & religious purposes, they had festivals. These festivals entailed singing, dancing, & eating food with the community. They had instruments such as wooden gongs, reed pipes, & certain types of drums. They also had a kind of primitive oven which was used to bake small flat cakes. Games were also a common past time of them, one game they invented was a ball game called Batos. The Ciboney Indigenous Peoples The Ciboney indigenous peoples lived all throughout the Caribbean. They lived throughout Cuba & as well as the greater & lesser Antilles. They were also known as the Siboney. Their language was unknown & it was a language was an isolate. They often stayed out of the way & lived on the coast lines. Their ambitions in relation to war & peace are unknown. They did not farm anything to our knowledge, instead opting to hunt & gather their supplies. They did not write anything down, so extremely little is known about them as the majority of them were gone before the Europeans arrived. Some of their primary sources of food were shellfish, turtles, & certain available island rodents. They also lacked in arts such as pottery & weaving. They may have originated from southern America in the areas of modern day Venezuela. If they were, they would have migrated to up to Cuba. Alternatively, they may have originated from the southern areas of modern day Florida. However, they did not have very good maritime technologies. The Most Destructive Man-Caused & Natural Disasters That Affected Saint Lucia No.1 Hurricane Tomas Hurricane Tomas was the 19th hurricane of the 2010 Atlantic hurricane season. It was a category 2 hurricane. It affected the greater & lesser Antilles. 44 people suffered fatal injuries due to a direct cause of the hurricane, 8 of which were on Saint Lucia. It also intensified a cholera outbreak in Haiti. It caused 463.4 million USD dollars in damages in 2010. Adjusted for inflation, that would modernly be 633.74 million USD. It lasted from October 29th 2010 to November 11th 2010. No.2 Hurricane Janet Hurricane Janet was the most powerful tropical cyclone of the 1955 Atlantic hurricane season. It is also one of the strongest Atlantic hurricanes on record, & was the first category 5 hurricane name to be retired. It was a category 5 hurricane. It affected most northern Caribbean countries & mainland Mexico. It caused over 1,023 deaths to occur directly from it. There is unfortunately no indirect death toll. It cost 65.8 million USD in 1955. Adjusted for inflation that would be, 731.69 million USD. It lasted from the 21st of September 1955 to the 30th of September 1955. No.3 Hurricane Allen Hurricane Allen was the second tropical cyclone of the 1980 Atlantic Hurricane season. It was also the 5th most intense Atlantic hurricane in terms of barometric pressure. It was a category 5 hurricane. 269 direct fatalities were caused a a result of the hurricane, 6 of which were on Saint Lucia. It affected the entire Caribbean, Texas, & Mexico. It caused 1.57 billion USD in damages in 1980. Adjusted for inflation that would be 5.68 billion USD. It lasted from July 31st 1980 to August 11th 1980. No.4 Plane Crash On Mount Gimie A plane crash occurred on October 29th 1973 at Mount Gimie. The aircraft was a Britten-Norman Islander. There were 4 total fatalities & there were 0 survivors. There were 3 passengers & 1 crew member on board. The twin engine plane struck a slope on Mount Gimie at 950 meters (3116.8 feet) high at night. The plane was absolutely destroyed. The wreckage was found one day later & all aboard were already dead. Saint Lucia’s Economy & Public Stock Market Saint Lucia is economically stable which, gives it its safe reputation. They largely export crops, clothing, electronics, electrical components, & beverages. Their largest industry is tourism. Agriculture accounts for 3% of GDP & for 20% of all jobs. Their Banana industry is slowly declining due to cheaper banana exports from South & Central America. The avocado industry however, is slowly & slightly on the rise. The isle is considered to have the most diverse manufacturing industry in the eastern Caribbean. Their GDP for the year of 2021 was 1.787 billion USD. Their currency is XCD or the eastern Caribbean dollar. Their GDP per capita is 9,816 USD. This has steadily risen throughout the years. Their inflation rate as of 2021 is 3.8% which is higher then in 2019. Their GDP by sector is, 2.2% agricultural, manufacturing / industry 10.9%, & services 86.9%. Their main stock market is the Eastern Caribbean Securities Exchange or the ECSE. This stock market has 13 listings as of 2023. Directories / Credits https://www.britannica.com/topic/Arawak https://www.britannica.com/topic/Carib https://www.stlucia.org/en/discover-saint-lucia/history-culture/ https://www.britannica.com/place/Saint-Lucia/History http://www.geographia.com/st-lucia/lchis01.htm http://saintluciamissionun.org/about-saint-lucia/ https://www.worldstatesmen.org/Saint_Lucia.html https://amp.theguardian.com/world/2018/apr/24/archeology-caribbean-carib-people-cannibalism-colonial-history-wrong https://www.embassyofstlucia.org/history-of-saint-lucia https://www.hoddereducation.co.uk/media/Documents/International/Caribbean/World-Read-Aloud-Day/The-Arawaks-or-Tainos-First-Aid-Reader-E.pdf https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ciboney https://ufdcimages.uflib.ufl.edu/AA/00/06/19/61/00547/15-25.pdf https://www.baaa-acro.com/country/saint-lucia Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa. ReplyForward

The History Of The Norwegian Archipelago Of Svalbard Todays article will discuss the history of the Svalbard as a whole. It is currently owned by the country of Norway. It is approximately 366.83 Nautical/Marine miles (422.140425 miles or 679.36916 Kilometers) from the mainland areas of Norway. Svalbard’s largest city is Longyearbyen. Svalbard was discovered during the golden age of dutch exploration, this gives it a rich & interesting history. For example, at one point it was disputed if Svalbard should have been ruled by multiple countries at the same time. In this article we will discuss the discovery & documented history of Svalbard as a whole, Svalbard known aboriginals, the disaster history of Svalbard , & finally a segment on the Svalbard economy. The Documented History Of Svalbard Before Dutch Colonization / Discovery Unfortunately, it is inconclusive as to when humans actually appeared on any of the Svalbard islands. A Swedish archeologist known as Hans Christiansson found tools made from flint & slate. He originally Identified them as being from approximately 3000 B.C. However, this may be in accurate as no other evidence of human activity was found. A later analysis on the leftover lithic material from these tools concluded that they were not made in the stone age era. It was proposed by Norwegian historians that that Norse seamen had found Svalbard in 1194. This claim is based on Icelandic annals that found something known was Svalbarði after sailing from Iceland. However, it is not known if it was referencing something other then modern day Svalbard. The exact location of what they called Svalbarði is unknown. It has been hypothesized whether or not the Russian ethnographic group known as the “Pomors” visited Svalbard in the early 15th or possibly 14th century. It is extremely likely that they did as Svalbard was untouched & had many resources that they would have normally been unable to find. However, there is no current solid evidence that would prove their arrival at that point. Seafarers from viking eras may have known that bear island existed as well as other areas of Svalbard. However this is not backed by concrete evidence. If the Vikings did discover Svalbard it would most likely have been in 1194. The reason that this is believed is that something named “Svalbarði” is mentioned in a few viking chronicles. After Colonization 16th Century Svalbard was first documented by the dutch on June 16th 1596 by William Barentsz, a dutch sea explorer. The island that was first discovered, was Spitsbergen. There were 2 failed expeditions that attempted at finding Svalbard before this in 1594 & 1595. There were 2 ships involved in this discovery, the captains being Jacob Van Heemsherk & Jan Cornelisz Rijp. The overseer of the expedition was Barentsz. It was argued by the 3 whether or not they wished to map the north coast of Spitsbergen. Ultimately, it was decided by Jan Cornelisz Rijp that he wished to sail to Spitsbergen while the other 2 sailed on to Novaya Zemlya. It is important to mention, that the original purpose of this expedition was not to discover Svalbard but was to discover an entrance to the North Sea. When Rijp arrived he documented it as Het Nieuwe Land. This translates from dutch into english as “The New Land”. From the annals made during this discovery, the marine resources of the island were not noted by Rijp or any of the others. Nor were any of the geological characteristics, or approximate size. Maps of these islands later went on to be published over time. The most important were of Spitsbergen. It is important to note, that at the time of Svalbard being found it did not fall under any jurisdiction or sovereignty. 17th Century The first hunting expedition on Svalbard was led by the english & took place on Bjørnøya / Bear Island, Bjørnøya is the southern most island of Svalbard. The expeditions was was organized by a company known as the Muscovy Trading Company. This expedition was led by a certain Steven Bennet in the year of 1604. They had extreme lack of experience killing walruses which was most likely due to the lack of walruses around England & surrounding areas. This led to them only being able to kill under one thousand of them. The following year the original group of hunters returned & were more successful. This returned annually until they unfortunately caused local extinction of the walrus. The population of the walrus has been in recovery since then. Later a man named Jonas Poole reported seeing a "great store of whales" off Spitsbergen (an island that composed the archipelago of Svalbard). The exact species of these whales is unknown however it was most likely the bowhead whale. This sparked a frenzy of whalers flocking to the island to find whale oil. This prompted the the Muscovy Trading Company to send a whaling expedition to the island under command of Jonas Poole & Tomas Edge in the year of 1611. This group of whalers made a base camp on the island of Spitsbergen. At this point it was made clear that the bowhead whale was around the archipelago & it was in abundance. The Muscovy Trading Company then decided to hire people from the Basque ethnographic group to hunt the bowhead whale. It is important to note that they did not only hunt whales from this point on. They also hunted many of the land animals for food, fur, oils, & other different purposes. This was because due to the areas that the basque people live, they get more experience with hunting the bowhead whale. However unfortunately the 2 ships holding the experts crashed off the coast of Svalbard. The crews were later rescued by English interlopers who were going to Svalbard. In the year of 1612, the Muscovy Trading Company sent a new expedition for the purpose of whaling, but they were surprised to be met by both Dutch & Spanish whalers. They then claimed exclusive rights to Spitsbergen on behalf of England for the purpose of whaling & sent away the other foreign whalers. In the year 1613, seven armed English ships were sent to Spitsbergen which caused many Dutch, Spanish, & French whaling vessels to depart from the isle. By this point Spitsbergen was an international whaling base, so the english suddenly claiming exclusive rights caused large disruption in certain economies. Another effect was that England ended up causing a lot of political conflict among main international whaling companies. The Dutch refused to recognize the english claim on reclusive rights, claiming the mare liberum principle. The mare liberum principle is based off a latin book about international ocean laws. Christian IV of Denmark claimed that the Denmark-Norway Union had the rights to all of Northern Sea view of Greenland Being an old Norwegian tax-land. England offered to purchase the rights from Denmark-Norway in 1614. However the pair refused this offer, after which the English reverted to their exclusive rights claim. In 1615, the Denmark-Norway Union sent three man-o-war ships to collect taxes from English & Dutch whalers. The union felt it was owned those taxes, however all whalers refused to pay. This issue ended in a political deadlock, with the Denmark–Norway union & England both claiming sovereignty over Svalbard. The opposing side, France, the Netherlands, & Spain claimed it to be void of rule under the mare liberum principle. In the year 1614, the English & Dutch partitioned the island, as the political tension was not worth continuing as it was negatively effecting the economy of both groups. Additionally in the year 1614, the Netherlands created Noordsche compagnie as a whaling cartel After the Muscovy Company fell into financial difficulties. The Noordsche Compagnie got managed to kick out the English whalers after a hard & tedious fight. They then established themselves in the northwestern corner of Spitsbergen & only permitted a limited Danish presence for the sole purpose of whaling. The English decided to whale further south, while the French were allocated to the north coast & along the open sea. Later spanning over the 1630s, the situation stabilized & there were only a limited number of aggressive whaling related incidents that were caused by the original tension. Initially, all nations hired the expert Basque whalers, although this practice gradually disappeared after their knowledge was learnt by their fellow European whalers. The whaling method was based on landing the whale, where it would be partitioned & the blubber boiled. With a high concentration of whales close to land, this method was efficient, as the companies would split the crew between the land station & hunting. The most famous land station from this area at the time was known as the Dutch Smeerenberg on Amsterdam Island which is a part of the Svalbard archipelago. This land station had up to 200 people employed at any time. Due of the high costs involved, only larger international companies conducted whaling. By the late 17th century there were between 200 & 300 whaling ships at any given time nearby the isle & in excess of 10,000 whalers around Spitsbergen. The first overwintering was accidentally experienced by an English group in Bellsund 1630 to 1631. The first planned overwintering was achieved by the Noordsche Compagnie in 1633 to 1634. In the year 1623, the first clear map of Spitsbergen was printed by Willem Janszoom Blaeu. This is currently our oldest known map of Spitsbergen. This century involved the most use of Svalbard as in later years many more international laws pertaining to whaling were put in place after this. 18th Century In approximately 1728, a revised map of Spitsbergen was published, this map was quite helpful to many sailors or pioneers who wanted to visit the isle. The first charted scientific expedition to Svalbard, specifically Spitsbergen, took place in 1764 & 1766. It was named Čičagov. It passed Svalbard in an unsuccessful effort to find a nearby route to the Northern Sea. A later second expedition was organized by the Royal Navy of the United Kingdom & it was led by Constantine John Phipps, a baron & English explorer as well as royal naval officer. It took place in the year of 1773. Unfortunately, both piloted ships known as the HMS Carcass (infernal class bomb vessel) & the HMS Racehorse / Thunder (discovery ship) got stuck due to ice around Sjuøyane. On this expedition zoological, botanical, & water samples were taken & measured in their respective aspects. After this, scientific exploration of this island drastically increased. This century had the most furthering of scientific knowledge about Svalbard. The most extensive surveys were conducted by William Scoresby, a English scientist, whaler, arctic explorer, & clergyman. He published several scientific papers about Svalbard which drastically expanded the scientific knowledge of Svalbard. The other major scientist was Baltazar Mathias Keilhau a Norwegian geologist & mountain pioneer. In this century many miners were also attracted to Svalbard due to its untouched minerals. Hunters also began taking note of the island for its exotic animals which would often be used for fur. 19th Century It was in this era that Swedish exploration began to appear more frequently. This was mostly due to Swedish Sven Ludvig Lovén marine biologist who conducted the first nautical Swedish expedition to Svalbard in 1837. He later went on to pioneer Swedish scientific exploration for the last half of the 19th century. A few other scientists also dedicated their research to the different areas of the archipelago. These most noted of these scientists are Otto Torell a Swedish geologist & naturalist, & Adolf Erik Nordernskiöld also a Swedish geologist & naturalist. Another result of Swedish scientific was the first interior map of Spitsbergen to be printed by Martin Conway. A french scientific expedition took place on the island in 1838 to 1839. This expedition was carried out by the french naval ship Recherche. This was unusual as most scientific expedition took place in the 17th century. That expedition resulted in multiple publications in many nautical & other fields as well as the construction of an observatory. Unfortunately we do not know whether that observatory is still standing or not. After this point not much nautical research was conducted however Svalbard started to be used to attempt to conduct air expeditions to the north pole. These experiments & expeditions were mostly conducted in the 1890’s. Most namely out of all of these The Andrée’s Arctic Balloon expedition was carried out with Svalbard as a starting point. It was conducted in 1897 it completely & utterly failed. In 1872, Alfred Gabriel Nathrost established the small town of Kapp Thordsen for the purpose of phosphorite & coal mining. Unfortunately, this did not work & the settlement was slowly abandoned. However, industrial mining did come back as a large amount of coal miners came to continue their endeavours. The first commercial company to begin mining on Svalbard areas was known as John Munroe Longyear’s Mining Company. From that a mining city was formed which later became what is now known as Longyearbyen. 20th Century Throughout the 1910’s & to some extent the early 1920’s coal was extremely profitable & was mined constantly on Spitsbergen. During the 1st world war, Norway began to take note of the large coal supply Svalbard was accumulated at a rapid pace. It was at this point that Norway finally decided to establish more mines in Ny-Ålesund in 1916. Many more things were discovered in this century as well as a general advancement of technology so this made more things achievable in arctic exploration. 4 more attempts between the years of 1925 & 1928 were made to launch an aircraft to the north pole with humans inside of it. These aircrafts all took off from the village of Ny-Ålesund. One of the aircrafts used for one of he first attempts was known as the flying boat, which was invented by Roald Amundsen. The flying boat is a kind of fixed-winged sea plane with a hull that allows it to land on water. These attempts all failed. Svalbard was initially unaffected by the Nazi German Occupation of Mainland Norway on 9 April 1940. Nazi Germany at the time most likely did not think of Svalbard having any importance. However, following the German attack upon the Soviet Union Svalbard became of strategic importance to secure supplies between the Allies of the 2nd world war. This was good due to the usual unimportance of the archipelago meaning it would most likely to not arouse suspicion. At first, the Soviet Union proposed Soviet–British occupation of the archipelago, but this was rejected by the Norwegian government-in-exile. Instead, an evacuation of all Norwegian & Soviet settlements were carried out by Operation Gauntlet, which took place between August 25th & September 3rd 1941. With the island evacuated, German troops occupied Longyearbyen on Spitsbergen , where they decided to build an airstrip & weather station. In May 1942, a Norwegian expedition was sent to liberate the island; they were attacked by German aircraft, but were able to set up a garrison in Barentsburg. The German outpost was subsequently abandoned. The Germans, presumably underestimating the Allied forces' size, initiated Operation Zitronella. Along with nine destroyers, the battleships Tirputz, the Scharnhorst were sent to Isfjorden where they leveled Barentsburg, Grumant & Longyearbyen. Sveagruva was bombed in an air raid in 1944. The Germans established a weather station on Hopen, which was taken over by Norway after world war 2 ended. 21st Century In 2008, the Svalbard seed vault is opened by the Norwegian government. The Norwegian seed vault has an extensive collection of all discovered seeds of all discovered plants. It is a kind of gene bank that protects against total extinction of many different kinds of plants. Its official website is https://www.seedvault.no/ . It is 1 floor in size. The Documented Aboriginals Of Svalbard It is currently unknown whether there were people who largely inhabited Svalbard before it was reached by the dutch. The Pomors may have visited however there is no hard evidence & if they did they did not stay for a very long time. Unfortunately if there were aboriginals their culture was most likely lost to time & will likely not ever be recovered in its entirety. The Most Destructive Man Caused & Natural Disasters That Have Affected Svalbard No.1 Andrée’s Arctic Balloon Expedition Of 1897 This was a balloon expedition, it was done an effort to make it to north pole however it failed & crash landed on white island. There were 3 members aboard the balloon with those members being known as: S. A. Andrée, Knut Frænkel, & Nils Stringberg. The leader of this group of scientists was Andrée. This occurred in July of 1897. A hydrogen balloon was delivered to Svalbard from Paris without being tested for security. The balloon showed obvious stress early on in the expedition however Andrée carried on in an effort to power through it. The technique that was used to steer the balloon in any capacity was ineffective & the balloon could not be controlled. The balloon was also leaking hydrogen & possibly had other mechanical however they were all left unacknowledged by Andrée. After take off the balloon quickly lost hydrogen causing them to crash on White Island on pack ice. The crash left them relatively unscathed however they were unequipped & inappropriately clothed for such weather. Unfortunately, they could not get help & all of the group sadly perished on the island due to the crash. The harsh October winter had slowly been closing in & they could not survive in such frigid conditions. Svalbard’s Economy Svalbard does not have a very large economy due to it not being a large exporter & due to its arctic location. Its main current industries are coal mining, tourism, & research. The currency that is used on Svalbard is the Norwegian Krone or NOK. Property on Svalbard is incredibly hard to get due to the fact that it is incredibly unique. Svalbard has a lower income tax compared to mainland Norway. The research portion is mostly in laboratories & experiments. The average income is 23% percent higher then mainland Norway. The average salary for a working person on Svalbard is 494,700 NOK. Total Timeline Of Important Historical Events 14th century - The Russian Pomors Possibly visited Svalbard however it is unclear. 1594 - Failed attempt at finding Svalbard. 1595 - Failed attempt at finding Svalbard. June 16th 1596 - Spitsbergen & Bjørnøya are discovered by the Dutch explorer William Barentz. It was promptly named Het Nieuwe Land. 1604 - The Muscovy Trading Company organizes a hunting expedition to Spitsbergen, an island of Svalbard. This ended with the local extinction of walruses that was caused by their hunting. 1611 - The Muscovy Trading Company sends a whaling expedition back to Svalbard for their purposes. This time the whalers made an official base camp. 1612 - The Muscovy Trading Company sent another whaling expedition with the expectation that no foreign whalers would be there, however they were there. 1613 - England sent on the Muscovy trading companies behalf, 7 armed naval ships to make sure no other foreign whalers came. This caused many foreign vessels to end up leaving soon after arrival. 1614 - England offers to purchase the rights to the island from the Denmark-Norway Union. This offer was refused. 1614 - The english & the dutch partition the island of Spitsbergen due to political tension. 1614 - The Dutch created Noordsche compagnie as a whaling cartel After the Muscovy Company fell into financial difficulties. 1615 - The Denmark-Norway Union sends 3 man-o-war ships to collect taxes from foreign whalers. Upon arrival of these ships, all whalers refused to pay any taxes. 1623 - The first clear map of Spitsbergen is printed by Willem Janszoom Blaeu. 1630 & 1631 - The first overwintering was experienced by the English. 1728 - A clearer, revised map of Spitsbergen is printed & published. This became incredibly useful. 1764 & 1766 - The first Russian chartered scientific expedition takes place. It is called the Čičagov. 1773 - An expedition took place which was conducted by the royal navy of the United Kingdom. This ended with many samples being taken & many scientific publications being tied directly to this expedition. 1837 - The first Swedish nautical expedition that was for Svalbard takes place. 1838 & 1839 - A french scientific expedition takes place ofd the coast of Svalbard. 1872 - A small town known as Kapp Thordsen gets settled for phosphorite mining. This unfortunately fails & leads to the settlement being abandoned. 1897 - Andrée’s Arctic Balloon Expedition takes place & fails. 1916 - Coal mining becomes popular in Svalbard & the mainland Norway government begin to notice the large amount of coal Svalbard has accumulated. This leads to Norway establishing a coal mining operation near the small town of Ny-Älesund. 1925 to 1928 - 4 attempts at launching an aircraft to reach the north pole are made. All attempts fail. April 9th 1940 - Nazi German occupation of Norway happens, Svalbard is initially unaffected but later becomes a major distribution point of supplies between the Allies. May 1942 - An attempt is made to liberate Svalbard however it fails. 26th Of February 2008 - The Svalbard Seed Vault is completed & opens. Directories / Credits https://global.hurtigruten.com/destinations/svalbard/inspiration/a-brief-history-of-svalbard/ https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1922/a-history-of-svalbard/ https://oceanwide-expeditions.com/to-do-amp/experiences/spitsbergens-history https://www.seedvault.no/ https://www.lifeinnorway.net/svalbard-history/ spitsbergen-svalbard.comhttps://www.spitsbergen-svalbard.com › ...History - Spitsbergen | Svalbard https://www.chimuadventures.com/blog/2018/12/history-of-svalbard/?amp=1 https://dbpedia.org/page/Operation_Gauntlet https://www.canadiansoldiers.com/history/operations/operationgauntlet.htm https://dbpedia.org/page/Operation_Zitronella http://www.warcovers.dk/greenland/zitronella.htm Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa

This month’s article series will be about… The island of Saint Lucia! It is its own country. From its closest point to the mainland it is 186.04 Nautical/Marine miles (214.091009 miles or 344.54608 kilometers) from mainland Venezuela. It is also 1314.27 Nautical/Marine miles (1512.434905 miles or 2434.02804 kilometers) from mainland Florida. It exists in the Caribbean & is one of the safest Caribbean islands to visit. It has a beautiful bustling ecosystem that is full of colour & many different strange species. Since it is in a tropical area & also it has many oceanic nutrients, it is incredibly appealing to many species for all sorts of purposes. This makes it incredibly biodiverse. One of the interesting species that are found here, is the slender sea horse. It is not found here for part of the year due to migration cycles, it does not live around Saint Lucia year-round. Some people even say that there is a sea horse mania due to the high concentration of them. In this article, we will discuss the life of the slender seahorse, the mating procedures, tactics, practices, & cycles of the slender sea horse, the distribution of the sea horse, & the scientific details of the sea horse. With that being said, let us delve into the slender sea horse of Saint Lucia. The Lives Of The Slender Sea Horse The Slender Sea Horse was discovered in 1933. It is unknown who exactly discovered it as it was described in a scientific report but the author did not clearly take credit for its discovery. Slender Sea Horses are usually a maximum height of 6.9 inches (17.526 centimeters) for both genders. They do not have an age where they reach maturity, but rather a height with that height being at 3.1 inches (7.874 Centimeters). They usually weigh between 7 ounces & 1 pound (0.198447 to 0.453592 kilograms), this does not change by gender. Its average life span is 2.5 years however this may change depending on the environment. Sea horses are incredibly socially smart & do often form emotional bonds & communicate with each other. They are incredibly social & often live in herds when captured, however they often do live in solitude in the wild. They do have some capacity for memory as they often remember humans who have taken care of them & they remember each other. They also form social hierarchies in herds. They also can form a trust for each other & humans. This species has existed for about 13 million years as those are our oldest fossils of them. Their diet usually consists of krill, copepods, plankton, fish larvae, & occasionally shrimp. Small marine crustaceans are also a common part of their diet. They will also consume any types of small edibles that are around them that they can consume. They are not cannibalistic in any capacity whatsoever. They will often eat up to 3000 pieces of food per day. This is not a result of an accelerated metabolism. The predators they encounter depend on the areas that they are in, however the most common ones for the Saint Lucia population are crabs, larger fish, sharks, & sting rays. Slender Sea Horses are not very territorial & will not fight over territory. Their territories that they do claim often overlap into each other. These territories are often at a size of 1,100 square feet (102.1933 square meters). They are not often aggressive to each other or to humans if left unprovoked. They are not endangered and are categorized as “Not Threatened” on the IUCN list. Besides mating, they often do not engage with other sea horses. They are often yellow brown, or white in colour. However they can be two-toned. A good way to identify them is that they have small black spots along their bodies that other sea horses do not have. The males have a smooth pouch & the females do not. Its head is horse-like & curves down, they also have a longer snout than other sea horse species. The Mating Procedures, Cycles, Tactics, & Practices Of The Slender Sea Horse Slender sea horses mate via sexual reproduction. They mate underwater via internal fertilization. They do not have a specific age, but rather a size that they reach sexual maturity at. That size is 3 inches long. They are not hermaphroditic. Seahorses are monogamous & will form emotional bonds with each other. They stay together for their entire lives after the initial courtship ritual. They have an interesting courtship ritual, in which the male may change colour & inflate his smooth pouch. This pouch is located at the base of his tail. The female & male will then perform a sort of dramatic dance around each other. In this dance they may flutter their fins, synchronize tail movements, & twirl around each other. It is not clear how long this dance is actually supposed to last, however, can last for up to a few days before they begin to mate. After this dance is performed the female will deposit her eggs into the male’s pouch. The female will use her ovipositor in order to do so. The male will then fertilize the eggs, there are usually about 1,600 eggs that will be deposited. However not all of these eggs will hatch or reach adulthood. These eggs are usually 1.2 millimeters (0.0472441 inches or 0.12 centimeters) in diameter. The eggs will take on average 2 weeks to hatch. However, it may take up to 30 days for the father to birth the juveniles. During this period the male will regulate the salinity level in his abdomen to the outside salinity in order to prepare the babies for the salinity once they are birthed. Once the male is ready to give birth to them, his abdomen will open & expel the juvenile seahorses into the ocean. These children will look almost identical to their parents as soon as they have been released. However, some may not be fully developed & still be curled up & covered in egg membrane. This will most likely not affect them later in life. It is not clear the exact percentage of how many of the eggs are actually fertilized & come out alive. It is also not clear what happens to the unfertilized eggs that don’t come out. After they are birthed, the father & mother will not continue to partake in the babies’ lives & will leave to have another group of children. After this, only 0.5% of the children will survive to adulthood to have their own children. It is not clear how many groups of children they will have per year. They also do not have a specific mating season. It is also not clear at what age they are most fertile. The Distribution Of The Slender Sea Horse Slender sea horses are found all throughout the Caribbean. They seem to prefer warmer waters as they are found in higher concentrations around the Caribbean, Brazil, & Venezuela. However, they are found as far north as Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. Another reason for them being in the tropics is that there is more flora to blend in with as their main means of defense is camouflage. They reproduce quickly, so this may be a reason why they are found in very many places. Food is also readily available in the tropics so that may be a contributing factor. They do have a bodily cooling system which gives them a bit of freedom when choosing an environment. They have shown signs of migrating further north so in the future we may have a different idea of what environment they prefer. The image above depicts a map of the distribution of Hippocampus Reidi. The Scientific Detailings Of The Slender Sea Horse The Slender Sea Horse is incredibly interesting for many reasons but the most well-known of them all is that the male gets pregnant & gives birth instead of the female. This is a trait that is only found in sea horses & sea dragons. This is due to an interesting attribute, the male has a pouch that the female releases her eggs into. In turn, the male fertilizes the eggs & once he is ready, an opening in his abdomen appears & through muscle contractions he pushes out the juveniles. This, however, is not the only specialized thing about them. They have specialized structures within their skin cells that are called chromatophores. This allows them to change colour in order to mimic their surroundings. They are able to do this seemingly at will. Sea horses lack teeth, instead having a long snout that they use to vacuum prey into their throats. This is why they can only consume very small edibles. They also lack a stomach & have an incredibly unique digestive tract which is only found in sea horses. The way that they digest is that their snout sucks the food in & it disintegrates as it goes through the snout. Due to this, they have to eat continuously to live or they will die of starvation. A sea horse’s anal fin is also on the front of the sea horse, it is near the torso of the sea horse. The male’s pouch so to speak, is just below the anal fin. The gills of the sea horse are located on the side of their head & are shaped like a circle. It is quite noticeable. Their tail is square in bone structure. Their skeleton is a bone structure of interlocking bones. If you look at a Slender Sea Horse’s entire body you will notice that all of it is built in a very similar way besides the skull. The image above depicts a sea horse skeleton replica. Their bones make them not very appealing to crabs as they cannot be gripped onto by crabs’ claws. Their anatomy makes it incredibly hard for them to swim at a fast pace. Their fins do not help with speed at all, and are mostly used by the sea horse to steer. After a long journey, they can die quickly of exhaustion. They also swim upright, unlike any other fish in the ocean. Occasionally, they will use their tail to wrap around seaweed or other types of flora. They have been captured by humans & are friendly towards humans. Sea horses all evolved from pipefish-like species. This can be seen due in that there is a present genome in them that is found in almost every pipefish species. Their phylum is Chordata meaning that they developed these 5 characteristics. All species under the phylum of Chordata develop 5 similar characteristics either in adulthood or as juveniles. The characteristics that they develop include a notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, endostyle or thyroid, pharyngeal Slits, & a post-anal tail. Their class is Actinopterygii, which means that they are ray-finned fish. This also means that their actinopterygian fin rays attach directly to the proximal or basal skeletal elements. Their order is Syngnathiformes. This is an order of ray-skinned fishes that includes trumpetfish & sea horses. A characteristic of being categorized under this order is that their bodies are narrow & surrounded by a series of bony rings. Another characteristic is their long tubular mouths. Their family is Syngathidae. This is a family of sea horses & pipefish. A characteristic of them is their elongated snout. Another characteristic is that they lack pelvic fins. Their genus is Hippocampus. A feature that is found in all of them is their bone structure leaves them in an upright position. Hippocampus is one of the genuses that make up the family of Syngathidae. Directories / References https://www.diveagainstdebris.org/blog/scuba-st-lucia/aug-06-16/seahorse-mania https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/discover-fish/species-profiles/hippocampus-reidi/ https://seahorse.com/topic/how-smart-are-these-creatures/ https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/fish/facts/seahorses https://www.theseahorsetrust.org/seahorse-facts/ https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4778478/ ThoughtCohttps://www.thoughtco.com › longs...Facts About the Longsnout or Slender Seahorse https://www.iucn-seahorse.org › iuc...Global IUCN Red List Assessments https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34331361/ https://www.scientificamerican.com/gallery/see-a-male-seahorse-give-birth/ https://www.seacoastsciencecenter.org/2016/06/19/seahorses-super-dads-sea/ https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/seahorse.html https://www.google.com/amp/s/poseidonsweb.com/seahorse-anatomy-differences-way-beyond-cute/amp/ Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa

Todays article will discuss the oceans that surround the Caribbean island of Saint Lucia. From its closest point it is 186.04 Nautical/Marine miles (214.091009 miles or 344.54608 kilometers) from mainland Venezuela. It is also 1314.27 Nautical/Marine miles (1512.434905 miles or 2434.02804 kilometers) from mainland Florida. It exists in the Caribbean & is one of the safest Caribbean islands to visit. It has a beautiful a bustling ecosystem that is full of colour & many different strange species. Since it is in a tropical area & also it has many oceanic nutrients, it is incredibly appealing to many species for all sorts of purposes. This makes it incredibly biodiverse. It is in the lesser Antilles & is a part of the windward islands. Its oceans are tropical & rather warm giving it a lower oxygen concentration. In this article we will discuss the salinity, temperature, marine geography & terrain, the most important marine ecosystems, the documented marine flora & fauna, & the utilization of marine resources on the island. With that being said let us delve into the paradise isle of Saint Lucia. The Salinity, Temperature, Tides, Basic Information, & Marine Geography Of Saint Lucia Saint Lucia exists within the Atlantic ocean meaning that the salinity level is likely higher then in any other ocean. The island is located just south of the french island of Martinique & north of Saint Vincent. The actual salinity level has not been released to the public domain. However, it can be assumed that it is between 35.5 & 34.5 parts. The temperatures for Saint Lucia can be found on a variety of websites, however this is the simplest website to navigate https://www.surf-forecast.com. The tidal chart can also be found there. The waves usually never get over 3 feet (0.9144 meters) tall. In that website you may choose whether you would like to see the temperature chart for pigeon point or Commaret point. The deepest point within 5 Nautical/Marine miles (5.7539 miles or 9.26 kilometers) is 3,280.8 feet (999.744 meters) deep. There are not strong currents or any kind of harsh riptide around Saint Lucia. This makes it an ideal swimming & scuba diving area. Scuba diving & snorkelling are common recreational activities that are seen here. However it is advised to listen to any coast guard warnings that are put out at the time. It is also advised to avoid disturbing the marine life. Water pollution overall is not bad & is constantly being improved. There also have not been any oil spills off the coast of Saint Lucia in recent years. There is less then 1 square kilometer of area that is marine protected by Saint Lucia. It ranks 108 on the list of countries with marine protected areas. It is not clear how much of this countries ocean floor has been mapped or discovered. The bottom of the ocean usually consists of coral, clay, sand, rock, and / or mud. The Most Important Marine Ecosystems Of Saint Lucia Coral Reefs Coral reefed areas are found in many places around Saint Lucia. There are no specific large coral reefs however the southern side of the island has many coral reefs. This however, can cause negative affects such as dead coral washing up on beaches & causing injuries to animal species. These coral reefs are usually found anywhere from 5 feet deep to 40 feet deep. They are usually found off shore by a few hundred meters. However in certain areas they are found much closer to the shoreline. A factor as to why this might be is that any coral reefs within 100 meters of shoreline are protected by the Saint Lucian Government. Under that law, 44% of the Saint Lucian coast is designated as a coral reef & is protected. The overall health of these reefs are well. 30% of these reefs are in good condition meaning that resources are abundant & they do not require human interference. 35% of these reefs are are in fair condition & do not require human interference conservation wise, however may not fully recover if human impacts are not minimized. Finally, 35% of these reefs are in poor condition & may not recover if human impacts are not minimized & there is no human interference for conservation. Unfortunately, the actual species of these coral are not known. Underwater Caves Oceanic caves are quite common around Saint Lucia, with the most notable being Bat Cave. Many smaller organisms live in underwater caves then out in open ocean. An organism that often does this, is a sea cucumber. Larger animals are not often found here due to there being tight spaces & not enough food to support them. Seagrasses also do not often grow here. Many fish can be found perusing throughout these types of caves looking for food or other things. These caves are mainly found along the western & northwestern sides of the island. It is also important to note that these areas are occasionally not fully underwater & also have dry areas. Seagrass Beds There is no specific place that these types of ecosystems are found, this type of ecosystem is incredibly versatile. Many different types of vertebrates & invertebrates are found here. Usually smaller animals are found here, this makes this ecosystem extremely fragile. Usually, this is an area where animals such as sea horses give birth. It consists mostly of seagrass. The Documented Marine Flora Of Saint Lucia The overall Documented marine flora of Saint Lucia is incredibly diverse & colourful due to the high amount of nutrients in the ocean water. However this does not include seagrass. Many plants have been documented to do something very strange in the lesser Antilles, that thing is that they seem to all be migrating south. This may be due to over fishing or lack of nutrients however the real reason for this is unknown. Unfortunately, their is not very much seagrass diversity along Saint Lucia. There are 3 documented species of seagrass that are found along Saint Lucia. These species are known as Thalassia testudinum (Turtle Grass), Syringodium filiforme (Manatee Grass), & finally Halodule wrightii (Shoal Grass). They are found in an incredibly high concentration off the eastern coast compared to the western coast which they are found infrequently & when found are much smaller. This may be due to the western coast being less maintained then the eastern coast. They are highly diverse when it comes to algae species. Species from the algae genera of Avrainvillea, Udotea, Penicillus, Halimeda, Amphiroa, Sargussum, & Caulerpa can all be traced to Saint Lucian waters. There are not any current issues with invasive marine plant species. The Documented Marine Fauna Of Saint Lucia Many types of marine fauna enjoy Saint Lucia as a sanctuary for living & giving birth to their young. Saint Lucia’s oceans are often protected & there is increased fines for destruction of the oceanic areas. Many creatures migrated from South American areas towards the southern lesser Antilles. This may be a contributing factor as to why Saint Lucia has such extreme biodiversity. Unfortunately, we will not be discussing single celled creatures, bacteria, or amoeba. Saint Lucia appeals especially to marine mammals due to the fact that they can safely give birth to their young & mate in this area. Some of the most notable & important animals that live around Saint Lucia are listed as the following: Hippocampus Reidi (slender sea horse), frogfish of various species, Pomacanthus Paru (french angelfish), Bothus Mancus (peacock flounder), moray eels of various species, Equetus Punctatus (spotted drum), Cardisoma Carnifex (giant mangrove crab), parrotfish of various species, lion fish of various species, Mobula Birostros (giant oceanic manta ray), Dactyloptera Voltians (atlantic flying gurnard), damselfish of various species, Myrichthys Ocellatus (golden spotted eels), Carcharhinus Leucas (bull shark), Megaptera Novaeangliae (humpback whales), & Physeter Macrocephalus (sperm whales). How The Marine Resources Of Saint Lucia Were Utilized Saint Lucian resources have been utilized in many ways, however commercial fishing was the most common use throughout history & is the most common use modernly. Commercial fishing as taken place by domestic & international companies in Saint Lucian waters since the country itself existed. This is due to their large abundance of edible fish. This had long lasting negative affects on the marine ecosystems. From this & many other local extinctions, we can learn that marine resource utilization should have the long lasting factors thought about before it is conducted. Another way that the marine resources were used for purposes, is oil extraction. This also had strange & dangerous affects on the wildlife. Boating has also become rather popular & that has caused many issues for animals that live in what are now harbours. Directories / Credits https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org/country/st-lucia https://www.climateandforests-undp.org/explore/caribbean/saint-lucia https://mpatlas.org/countries/list https://www.agrra.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/STL-Report-Card_2016_WebLowRes.pdf https://www.wri.org/data/shoreline-protected-coral-reefs-st-lucia https://sevenseasmedia.org/st-lucia-coral-spawning/ http://www.oas.org/reia/iwcam/pdf/St.%20Lucia/Chapter%203.PDF https://www.thegef.org/news/communities-innovate-address-sargassum-seaweed-coasts-saint-lucia Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa ReplyForward

Today’s article is a part of a special collection, known as the Marine Hall Of Fame. Recently we have decided to publish the collection as the Marine Biological Hall Of Distinction. It is the exact same collection, however it is just under a separate name. In this special collection we will discuss marine biologists who we feel have served marine biology & oceanography the most. We do this in order to commemorate these marine biologists & to show gratitude for everything they have contributed to our oceans. This collection has no relation to the main months series. This series publishes on the 25th of every month, shortly after our article on the oceanic environment of a certain region on the 20th. Today’s Marine Biologist, is Eugenie Clark, best known as The Shark Lady. She is best known for her study of shark species, & her pioneering research in the Scuba Diving field. She was one of the first ichthyologists of her time, as well as one of the first people to promote conservation of marine ecosystems. She popularized the study of ichthyology, & popularized the image of sharks. In this article we will discuss Clark’s Early Life & Education, Clark’s Later Life & Career, & Finally Clark’s Awards, Honours, Achievements, & Accomplishments. With that being said let us delve into the life of Eugenie Clark. Eugenie Clark’s Early Life & Education Eugenie Clark was born on May 4th of 1922, in New York City, New York. When she was young, she was often taken to the New York Aquarium, which she says inspired her passion for ichthyology. Not only this, but she learned to swim at age 2, which made her more curious about oceanic life. Additionally, she is of Japanese descent, & the ocean plays a significant role in Japanese culture. It is unknown whether or not this impacted her interest in any particular way. Unfortunately, her father died before she reached aged 2. Afterwards, her mother remarried a Japanese restaurant owner. She got her elementary education from a local school in Woodside, Queens, & got her secondary education from William Cullen Bryant High School, also in Queens. William Cullen Bryant High School is located at 48-10 31st Avenue, Astoria, New York, 11103. Clark has also mentioned that she was greatly inspired by the works of Charles William Beebe, a researcher of marine biology. Eugenie Clark’s Later Life & Career Determined to study marine life, Clark worked to pay her way through university. She earned her bachelor’s degree from Hunter College in 1942, studying the puffing mechanics of blowfish. After this, she applied to the graduate program at Columbia University, but she was rejected by the department chairman as they were concerned that she would leave her career in science to have a family. After this, she applied at New York University, where she would earn her Masters Degree from New York University in 1946. While attending New York University, she worked as a chemist for a plastics company to earn extra income. The same year that she graduated from Hunter College, she would marry her first husband Jideo Umaki. She would remain married to him until 1947 when they would get divorced. After going on a graduate research trip in the southern pacific, she became employed at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography in 1946. At this institution she learned how to scuba dive properly, which would greatly benefit her throughout her career. She would remain employed here until 1947, when she was asked by the United States Fish & Wildlife Service to study the sea life of a certain area of the Philippines. Unfortunately, due to her being of Japanese descent, she was detained by the Federal Bureau of Investigation & could not go. After this in 1948, she worked at the Marine Biological Laboratory at Woods Hole, Massachusetts. Then after leaving her job at Woods Hole in 1948, she became a staff member at the American Museum Of Natural History, New York, where she would work until 1966. In the year of 1949 she would be asked by the Office of Naval Research to collect & identify certain poisonous species of fish in the South Seas. It was here she learned how to free dive, an important skill that would be useful later on in her life. In 1950, she would marry her second husband Ilias Themistokles Konstantinu, to who she would remain married until 1967. Also in 1950, she would earn her doctorate in zoology studying swordtails, which just so happened to be the fish she kept in her home aquariums in her adolescence. In 1951, she conducted research in the Red Sea from the Al-Ghardaqah Marine Biological Station located in Egypt. She earned her Doctoral Degree in 1950 from New York University from her research on the subject of live bearing reproduction in the platy fish & swordfish. She was also the first person to conduct artificial insemination experiments on fish that were successful. In 1953, she wrote her first memoir called “Lady With The Spear”. In the year 1955, using funding from William H. Vanderbilt, she founded the Cape Haze Marine Laboratory in Placida, Florida. This laboratory, was first only founded in a single room. She founded it with an assistant, who was a fisherman. This lab went on to have six campuses, 24 research programs, & 200 staff on all 7 continents in the modern day. It was later moved to Siesta Key in 1960, & Sarasota in 1967. Also in 1967, she married her third husband Chandler Brossand, who she would remain married to until 1969 when they would divorce. In that same year of 1967, the laboratory was renamed “Mote Marine Labratory”. In the year 1955, a cancer researcher asked Clark to capture some sharks so their livers could be studied, which led to the creation of a pen for live sharks in the lab. In 1958, Clark conducted various research studies in order to see if sharks could be trained, as well as how intelligent they were. While conducting these experiments, she taught lemon sharks & a few other species how to push buttons for food. This destroyed the stereotype that sharks lacked intelligence. Henceforth, Clark would advocate for conservation of sharks, & would work to dispel the notion that sharks are dangerous animals. She would go on to become a faculty member of the University Of Maryland in 1968. In 1970, she would marry her fourth husband Igor Klatzo, who she would divorce that same year. She became a full professor at the University of Maryland in the year 1973, then became professor emeritus in 1992. Soon after becoming a faculty member, she wrote her second memoir “The Lady & The Sharks” in 1969. Clark would continue to make frequent expeditions to the Red Sea, & various other places even after becoming emeritus. It is on these trips that she discovered the Trichonotus nikii which is a species of sand diving fish found in the Red Sea. She named it after her son, Nikolas. She would also discover the Pardachirus marmoratus or the “Red Sea Moses Sole”, which produces a natural repellent of sharks. In 1991, she would co-author the children’s book “The Desert beneath the Sea”, this book would mainly entail her adventures along the sandy sea floor of the Red Sea. She married her fifth husband Henry Yoshinobu Kon in 1997, to whom she would remain married until his suicide in the year 2000. She fully retired from teaching in any capacity in 1999. She returned back to the laboratory she had built in 2000 as a Senior Scientist & Director Emerita, & later went on to become a trustee. Clark would often contribute columns & articles to the National Geographic magazine. Along with all this, Clark is widely credited with discovering the fact that certain sharks don’t need to swim to breathe. Clark would go on to take her last dive in 2014. She passed away on February 15th of 2015, due to complications with lung cancer at the age of 92. At the time of her death, her latest research was still in review for publish. She was survived by her 4 children Hera Papakonstantinou, Aya Papakonstantinou, Themistokles Alexander Papakonstantinou, & Nikolas Masatomo Papakonstantinou. Eugenie Clark’s Awards, Honourables, Achievements, & Accomplishments 1. Clark conducted over 200 field research missions over the course of her career. 2. She authored a staggering total of 175 scientific articles. 3. She was the recipient of 3 Doctoral Degrees in Science from various institutions. 4. She won the Gold Medal Award of the Society of Women Geographers. 5. She also won the President's Medal of the University of Maryland, where she worked for many years. 6. She conducted a total of 72 dives for research purposes over the course of her life. 7. She authored a total of 3 books, & was the subject of countless others. 8. She has an award named after her from the “Save Our Seas Foundation.” 9. She Founded the Mote Marine Laboratory in Placida, Florida. Directories / Credits 1. “Dr. Eugenie Clark (1922-2015)”, Written by Unknown & Published on an Unknown date. Published by the National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration. Retrieval Date: May 31st, 2023. https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/news/may15/eugenie-clark.html 1. ”Eugenie Clark”, Written by Unknown, originally Published on July 20th of 1998, last updated April 30th of 2023. Published by the Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieval Date: May 31st, 2023. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Eugenie-Clark 1. “Remembering Mote’s “Shark Lady”: The Life and Legacy of Dr. Eugenie Clark” Published March 15th, 2015, Written by Hayley Rutger. Published by the Mote Marine Laboratory. Retrieval Date May 31st, 2023. https://mote.org/news/article/remembering-the-shark-lady-the-life-and-legacy-of-dr.-eugenie-clark 1. “Eugenie Clark Award”, Written by Unknown, Published on the 14th of August 2015. Published by the Save Our Seas Foundation. Retrieval Date: May 31st, 2023. https://saveourseas.com/eugenie-clark-award/ Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

This article is a part of our second newsletter titled, The Persaud Catalogue Scientific Journal of Marine Biology. In this journal, we will publish information concerning the various marine flora & fauna of certain places. This newsletter, will publish sporadically, & not on a timed basis like The Persaud Catalog. This journal is in affiliation with The Persaud Catalog, however it is a separate entity. In this article, we will state all of the most prominent species of Marine Flora in Malibu Lagoon that were found. We will state the density of these species, the place where it was found the most, & a detailed description of the species. Please note, this was done with the correct permits, do not attempt to imitate this survey without being aware of the permits necessary to do so. On June 17th of 2023, we sent 2 field agents to Ranchos Palos Verdes Beach. On the beach, We did a survey of all the seagrasses & seaweeds that washed up on shore. We have took the coordinates & a sample of certain of these species, in order to study them. They have collected samples of the seaweed species that were found along the beach. We got in total, 6 samples of seagrasses from the beach. In this article, we will publish the results of examination of these seagrasses, & due to this article being public, it will make an official public log of all the seagrasses along that beach. To be clear, this is a survey that will only be conducted once, & not yearly like the Malibu surveys. This survey is a stand alone study. With that being said, let us delve into the seagrasses of Ranchos Palos Verdes Beach. The Initial Survey Of Ranchos Palos Verdes Beach Under this category, will be all of the compiled list of all of the species that were found along the beach. All of our specimens were taken at approximately 6:30 PM on June 17th, 2023. This was closer to high tide then to low tide, as the high tide of the day was at 9:17 PM. This may influence the results as we may have more seaweed samples then we would at say low tide. Below is the list of all samples of seaweed found at Ranchos Palos Verdes. Specimen 1: Chondrus Crispus (Carrageen Moss / Irish Moss ) We found the species Chondrus Crispus growing abundantly along the beach. This species is also known as Irish Moss, or Carrageen Moss. The beach is rather rocky, which makes conditions very comfortable for this species to grow. We found this specimen at the coordinates of 33°43’44” North 118°21’9” West or 250° West . Our Specimen measured at 16.9 centimeters (6.653543 inches). Usually in this species each plant grow to at minimum 20 centimeters. meaning it is This specimen was a deep wine red colour, meaning it was most likely in it was healthy, & had not been exposed on the beach for very long. Carrageen moss will turn brown in the winter, however since summer solstice in California is the 22nd of June, this moss had been in the spring & early summer heat for quite some time. Irish moss will usually have branches 2 millimeters to 15 millimeters thick, however our specimen was somewhat small so it was at a lower thickness. This species was the most prominent by far along the beach, as you quite clearly could not walk more then 10 feet without seeing or stepping on Carrageen Moss. This species grows most commonly in the intertidal zone along the beach, & as deep as the oceanic floor. Carrageen moss is also deep purple in colour. This species is found practically everywhere on the beach except for the Rocky Areas. Specimen 2: Unidentified White Seagrass Species We found this strange specimen along the sandy portion of the beach, far from the rocky portion of the beach. It seemed to be the only specimen of its species along the beach. We found this species at coordinates 33°43’44” North 118°21’9” West or 294° North West. Our specimen for this species measured at approximately 6.5 inches long (16.51 centimeters). It seems to have a main root part that connects all of its leaves, that is attached to the bottom of the specimen. This species seemed to be in the highest density on the north central most area on the beach. Specimen 3: Callophyllis We found this specimen very close by the place where the white specimen. It was tangled in a large mat of Carrageen Moss. We found this specimen at the coordinates 33°43’44” North 118°21’9” West or 297° North West. Our specimen of this species measured at approximately 5.25 inches (13.335 centimeters) long. We narrowed it down to the genus of Callophyllis, however we could not figure out exactly which species it was. There are approximately 55 species under this genus, making it extremely hard to determine which exactly it was. Our specimen was a light red colour, & not very pigmented at all. When held up to the light, the tips are translucent. Additionally the branches of this species seemed to have some kind of bacteria growing on it, as when held up to the light, there seemed to be large dots on the branches. This could also just be a pigmentation issue. This genus is characterized by its red, disco looking seagrasses. Out of all the species on this list, it seemed to be the third least common on the beach. Specimen 4: Corallina Officinalis (Common Coraline) We found this specimen clumped in the same mat as the specimen of Ulva Lactuca. These 2 specimens were found at 33°43’44” North 118°21’9” West or 333° North West. Our specimen of this species measured at 5.25 inches (13.335 centimeters) long. This species seemed to have one central stem, & have a small appendages growing off of all of the sides. This species is also rather fluffy, & calcareous. Out of all the species on that beach this species seemed to be the second most commonly found. Common Coraline grows primarily in the rocky & intertidal zones, but strangely enough washes up the most on the beach & not on the rocks or in-between them. This species is certainly very recognizable as it is a deep purple colour, similar to that of Carrageen Moss. This species is found on the highest density on the sandy most parts of the beach, & is virtually nonexistent on the rocky areas of the beach. Specimen 5: Ulva Lactuca (Sea Lettuce) We found this specimen clumped in the same mat as the Purple Seagrass. These 2 specimens were found at 33°43’44” North 118°21’9” West or 333° North West. Our specimen of this species measured at approximately 13 inches long. It seems, that we found just the leaf portion of this species. Our specimen does not seem to have a stem, fruit, root, or anything of the like. This is most certainly just the leaf of whichever species it belongs to. Ulva Lactuca has thin, flat, long, wide leaves that are extremely recognizable. This species is also a deep neon green colour, however it can also appear a regular ivy green. This species, along with Zostera Marina, is the one of more uncommon of all the seagrasses on this list. More specifically, it is the second most uncommon of all of the species. This species grows most commonly on rocks, & in intertidal zones. This species seems to be in the highest density on the central most side of the beach. Specimen 6: Zostera Marina (Common Eelgrass / Seawrack) We found our specimen of Zostera Marina at the coordinates 33°43’44” North 118°21’10”, or 314° North West. This species is not found as frequently on the beach as all of the other species on this list. It was found towards the center of the beach, further away from all other major mats of seagrass. Zostera Marina always tends to grow to massive lengths, but we found an especially small specimen. The longest part of specimen for this species measured at 45 inches long (114.3 centimeters). Though, this specific was discovered in a large mat, so many of its tendrils broke off from the main root. This makes it difficult to determine the real length that the unbroken specimen is supposed to be. This species & Ulva Lactuca, seem to be the least common along Ranchos Palos Verdes Beach. This species is extremely easy to identify as it is long, thin, & green. It is by far the the longest species found on Ranchos Palos Verdes Beach. It seems to be found in the highest density towards the central most areas of the beach. Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa