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Ode To Oceanography: An Antique Map Of New Haven, Connecticut This article is the fourth instalment in the Ode to Oceanography series. This series will publish on the 15th of every month, until we run out of antique nautical maps to analyze, though that will not be for many decades. Once that happens, we will keep the series running, but we will change the article format. In these articles, will take an antique nautical map & analyze it in its entirety. These maps will not strictly be on open oceanic waters, they may be on rivers or occasionally, bays. We will also discuss the methods that may have been used to make the map, considering the time period, & the country of origin. These maps will come from a variety of sources, though they will mainly come from Maps Of Antiquity, a wonderful New England map shop. These maps will come from varying time periods, & will not be in any particular historical order. Today’s map up for analysis, is a antique nautical map of the New Haven Harbour. New Haven has expanded since the maps making in 1847, & unfortunately for this reason we cannot say the exact length of the coast. The map is in very good condition, however it does look like parts of the border of the map are dirty, & the map has somewhat yellowed with time. In this article we will discuss the map itself & the translation of certain sections of the map, & a surface level analysis on this antique nautical map. With that being said, let us delve into the waters of New Haven. The Map Itself Since this chart is in english, there is no reason to translate it into english. This map is centered on the New Haven Lighthouse. A Surface Level Analysis On This Nautical Chart We found this map through Maps Of Antiquity. This map was made by the United States Coastal Survey. It was made in the United States. This map is extremely accurate for the time, & the proportions of the map are shockingly correct. This map has no specific name, though it may belong to a specific volume of surveys. This map has no wind patterns, nor does it have any wave patterns on it. This map was most likely made to be uncoloured, so that it could be easily mass printed. There are no topographical features outlined on the map, as there are no mountains close-by the harbour. It was most likely used for military purposes, but it might not have been made for purely militaristic purpose. This map most certainly wasn’t hand drawn. There are 2 possibilities as to how the map was made, & the first of the 2 is more likely. The first method would be through lithographic printing. In this method the artist will draw directly onto a printing surface, such as zinc, or copper, until they are satisfied with the drawing. After this, the surface will be covered with a chemical etch, which will bond it to the surface. With this process, the blank areas will attract moisture to the plate & repel the lithographic ink, while the areas that are drawn on will hold the ink. Water is then wiped onto the unpainted areas to help prevent the ink from deviating. After the map wanted is inked, the paper is laid over it & covered with a tympan, & the tympan is pressed down. Finally, these materials pass through the scraper bar of the litho press. Afterwards, an exact copy of whatever was supposed to be printed is revealed. The second method possible, is the engraving Method. This method was not to traditional at the time, though it could be done, it was not as common. In this technique, there are 5 jobs, the mapmaker, the engraver, the printer, the papermaker, & the colourist. The first step in this process is that the mapmaker will go out & make a hand-drawn map of the area where the map will encompass. Effectively, the mapmaker is the informant who makes the first copy. After this, the engraver will create a design of the map in reverse on a metal, usually copper, surface. Usually there would only be 1-2 plates used, however it differs depending on the size of the map. After the copper plate is made, the printer will heat the copper panel, & then proceed to lather it with ink. They will then wipe the copper panel down to the point where ink is only on the grooves of the panel. Then after this, the printer will press damp paper onto the ink, & hang it up to dry. To conclude, the colourist will touch up the map & decorate it by adding in details, such as shorelines & shoals. The first technique is more likely, as it could be done more easily & in higher quality. Directories / Credits All credit for this map analyzed today goes to Maps Of Antiquity, a wonderful New England map shop. To purchase this map, any other maps, or any other cartographic objects, please visit mapsofantiquity.com . To be clear, this is not an advertisement for Maps Of Antiquity, as we do not have a partnership with them. Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

The European Squid Of Crete (Loligo Vulgaris) This months article series will be about.. The Greek Island Of Crete! Crete is approximately 52.33 Nautical/Marine miles from mainland Greece. It is also approximately 96.98 miles from mainland Turkey. The island of Crete is owned by Greece as of 2023. Crete is in the Mediterranean sea & is surrounded by many other greek islands. Crete is also one of the islands with the most land & marine biodiversity. It is incredibly appealing to animals as it has many marine resources. These areas are also It is a very interesting place to see different types of marine life. Namely because many different types of octopi & squid are found here. They are also found in high density here. The European squid is one of these species. It can frequently be found off the coast doing various things. The European squid is not invasive in any form to this area. As far as we know there are no species that are genetically close enough to it to be in a species complex. There used to be a subspecies under it known as Loligo reynaudii. However, This classification has since been revoked. It is native to the Mediterranean sea, the Irish sea, the northwest coast of Africa, & the island of Great Britain. In this article we will discuss the life of the European squid, the mating procedures, tactics, practices, & cycles of the European squid, the distribution of European squid, & the scientific detailings of the European squid. The Life Of The Europeans Squid It is unfortunately unknown when this species was discovered. It is also unknown as to who discovered it & how they discovered it. This squid can grow up to 75 centimeters (29.5276 inches). However some sources claim that they may only grow up to 50 centimeters (19.685 inches). At their smallest they are usually 10 centimeters (3.93701 inches). The females live on average 1.5 to 2 years. The males however, live approximately 3 years on about. They weigh on average 3.3 pounds (1.49685 kilograms) regardless of gender. As a species, they do not seem to exhibit any more intelligence then an average squid species. Squids as a whole are incredibly intelligent. They demonstrate problem solving skills. They also occasionally use their tentacles to pull themselves into small crevices. Much like octopi in a way. Unfortunately, it is extremely hard to tell when this exact species started existing. It is also hard to tell when squid started existing as they rarely fossilize or leave evidence that will confirm their existence in a certain time period. However, the earliest evidence that we have of them is during the Late Cambrian period. This would have been approximately 490 million years ago. This species ranks as Data Deficient on the IUCN red list. Meaning that this species has not yet been assessed by the IUCN red list. Their diet usually consists of small fish, crustaceans, & other squids. They are occasionally cannibalistic. They feed by using 2 tentacles to grab onto the food & put it into its beak. Their eating capacity is not known. Their hunting cycles are also unknown however it is presumed that they hunt at nighttime. Its beak is centred on the bottom of the squid in the center of the tentacles. This beak is usually used to snap the spinal cord of prey. They seem to lead a rather solitary life & seem to not really care for each other. They are not territorial & seem to roam about the ocean their entire lives. However, this is not true for larger squid species. They are not very aggressive towards humans as long as they are not provoked. Thankfully since they are so small in size, they cannot cause much damage towards humans or vessels. They are however, occasionally aggressive towards each other. They are invertebrates & don’t have bones at all. They may fit through holes that are less then 1 quarter of their size. The Loligo Vulgaris has a long, slender & cylindrical body. Rhomboid fins comprise two thirds of the mantle length. Though locomotion is via jet propulsion. The posterior border is slightly concave. The head is relatively small in proportion to the rest of the body & has large eyes which are covered with a transparent membrane. It is usually a yellowish amber colour or a salmon colour. The Mating Practices, Tactics, Cycles, & Procedures Of Ths European Squid Squids mate in rather strange ways due to the placement of certain parts of their genitalia. Squids mate via sexual reproduction. They are not monogamous & will not mate for life. They are not hermaphroditic & cannot change genders. Both genders reach sexual maturity at approximately 1 year after hatching. However, they will often only get the chance mate once in their life due to how short their lifespans are. If they survive for longer they will mate more throughout their life. They will usually mate towards the end of their lives. The males will court the females by changing the colour of their skin. The females are most fertile at 9-12 months old. They will change their skin to flashy colours. After initiation, the males will eject his sperm into the females oviduct. The males will use a penis or tube in order to transfer these sperm packets into the female. These packets will then break open. After this the male will swim off & not be seen again. The gestation period for the females is unknown. After this the females will eventually lay the eggs. She will eject these eggs through an orifice in her body (not her beak) onto the ocean floor. She will then swim away. She will not take care of them at all, however this is not the case for all squids. The female will have approximately 3,000 eggs. However they will not all hatch. After the European squid hatches, it will fend for itself. There unfortunately is no percentage of egg survival to adult rate. Soon after she releases eggs, she will die. They also do not appear to have any specific month. The Distribution Of The European Squid The European squid is found all throughout Europe. They are found in the highest density throughout the Mediterranean ocean. They are also found on the western coast of Africa, however they are found scarcely on the southwestern side of Africa. Occasionally, they can also be found just north of great Britain. They prefer colder, muddier environments & usually enjoy depths of 135 meters (442.913 feet).They also prefer sandier & barren environments. They are often not found near the sea floor & prefer to stay in the middle of the ocean. However they may be found as deep as 500 meters (1640.42 feet) & as high as 20 meters (65.6168 feet). They are often found much deeper during the winter months. They often will migrate towards Portugal in the winter & towards the south & north of France. The images above depict the known areas of where the species of Loligo Vulgaris is found. They also choose the most secluded areas, most likely to avoid interacting with vessels or other squid. The northern population of this species is also slightly different appearing then the southern population, however they are still the same species. This is also not to be confused with the species that roams in the same area known as Loligo Reynaudii or Loligo Vulgaris Reynaudii. The Scientific Detailings Of The European Squid The European squid is a strange creature due to the fact it can fit almost anywhere. Like many cephalopods, this creature manages to fit through holes less then a quarter of its size. They is partially due to the fact that they lack any hard matter such as bones, this excluded their parrot-like beak. However, there is another component to this. They can suck in water & blow out water. When they blow out water, they deflate & may fit wherever they so please. If their beak fits in an area, then the squid does as well. The same goes for octopi. As for their anatomy, here is a diagram as to how its organs are placed. The images above depict the anatomy of a squid. In this image it may look as if they have 2 hearts, however they have 3. They have 1 systemic heart which is in the middle of mantle. The other 2 are branchial or gill hearts which pump blood to the gills. What happens at the gills is that oxygen is taken up & the blood that was sent by the gill hearts is sent to the systemic heart. After this point the blood is pumped all throughout the body. Strangely enough, a squids blood is completely blue. The reason for this is due to the fact that they have a copper compound known as hemocyanin in their blood. This is similar to humans having hemoglobin in their blood which makes it red. Squids famously produce ink, their ink sack is located underneath the systemic heart which is the center of the mantle. They use this ink as a defensive mechanism to escape from potential threats. As the squid spews the ink cloud it can safely jet away. They release their ink from their siphon, which is located underneath the mantle & on the creatures back. Chemically speaking the ink usually includes melanin, enzymes related to melanin production, catecholamines, peptidoglycans, free amino acids & various metals. Also, due to the way that their nervous system is built they can feel pain. While squids do have small brains, they do not have a central nervous system. They do not have a centralized brain that controls the body as humans do. Their neurons are in various clusters around their body. These clusters are known as ganglia. These clusters will control various parts of the body. They also have very are very strange when it comes neuroscience. This is best said by Jade Zee, A professor at northeastern university. She says & we quote “We humans have white matter, which causes electrical signals to travel much, much faster in our neurons. Invertebrates don’t have that. So the invertebrate solution, if you want electrical signals travel faster, is to have a wider diameter axon of a neuron. The very first action potentials were recorded in what’s called the squid giant axon. It’s about a millimeter in diameter, which I know still sounds small, but that’s actually really, really big compared to other nerves.”. Their phylum is known as Mollusca. Mollusca is the 2nd largest phylum, just behind Arthopoda. Mollusca is however the largest marine phylum as it comprises approximately 23% of all documented marine species. The three most commonly found features defining modern species categorized under molluscs are the following: a mantle with a significant cavity used for breathing & excretion, the presence of a radula, and the structure of the nervous system. Their class is Cephalopoda. This class includes almost all species of cuttlefish, octopi, squid, & nautilus. Their order is Myopsida. This is an order of squids. A few universal traits of all squid categorized under Myopsida is that they lack a secondary eyelid, & are instead covered by a transparent corneal membrane. Their family is Loliginidae. This is a family of pencil squid. A common trait of species categorized in this family is that they are long & incredibly thin. Their genus is Loligo. This is a genus of squid. There are only 3 species categorized under Loligo. This is also one of the most widely distributed genera of Myopsid squid. Their binomial name is known as Loligo Vulgaris. Directories / Credits http://www.seawater.no/fauna/mollusca/vulgaris.html https://www.sealifebase.ca/summary/Loligo-vulgaris.html https://www.animalspot.net/squid https://ocean.si.edu/ocean-life/invertebrates/cephalopods https://britishseafishing.co.uk/european-squid/ https://www.perthnow.com.au/news/target-the-squids-territory-ng-24c7d96e24c5c281e5a0ef0704349f7a https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/taxa/inverts/mollusca/cephalopoda.php https://www.tepapa.govt.nz/discover-collections/read-watch-play/science/colossal-squid/anatomy-colossal-squid/organs-colossal https://www.mbari.org/cephalopod-sex/ https://cimi.org/blog/cephalopod-inkwhat-is-it/ https://amp.theguardian.com/science/2017/aug/09/why-do-cephalopods-produce-ink-and-what-on-earth-is-it-anyway https://news.northeastern.edu/2019/06/27/what-squid-neurons-and-an-octopus-on-ecstasy-can-teach-us-about-ourselves/ Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa

The Persaud Catalogue: Scientific Journal Of Marine Biology: Seagrass Survey Of Rincon Island State Beach This article is a part of our second newsletter titled, The Persaud Catalogue Scientific Journal of Marine Biology. In this journal, we will publish information concerning the various marine flora & fauna of certain places. This newsletter will publish sporadically, & not on a timed basis like The Persaud Catalog. This journal is in affiliation with The Persaud Catalog, however, it is a separate entity. In today's article, we will catalog the various species of seagrass found in & around Rincon Island State Beach. We will state the density of these species, the place where it was found the most, & a detailed description of the species. Please note, this was done with the correct permits & research, do not attempt to imitate this survey without being aware of the permits necessary to do it. On October 7th of 2023, we sent out 2 field agents to Rincon Island State Beach, in order to catalog the seagrass species. What they found is that there were 4 species of seagrass found on the beach. We have taken the coordinates &, a sample of these species, in order to study them. To be clear, this is a survey that will only be conducted once, & not yearly like the Malibu surveys. This survey is a stand-alone study. With that being said, let us delve into the seagrasses of Rincon Island State Beach. The Results Of The Survey All specimens for this survey were taken from 3:10 to 3:21 p.m. on October 7th, 2023. The tidal positioning at the time of collection may influence the results of this survey. Seagrass Specimen No. 1: Zostera Marina (Common Eelgrass / Seawrack) Zostera Marina is by far the most prominent species found on the beach. It was not found at all towards the western side of the beach, & was only found towards the eastern side of the beach. The seagrass was found in small clumps close to the shoreline, & never found with other seagrass species. We found studied 2 specimens for this species, the first of which was 6.29921 inches (26 centimeters) long & 1 millimeter wide. The second specimen was approximately 8 inches (20.32 centimeters) long, & 1 millimeter wide. Our specimen was found at the coordinates 34°21’24” North & 119°26’37” West. Usually, the stem & root of the seagrass is white. This species is a true seagrass, meaning it grows rooted on the seafloor, like grass. This species usually grows in water of 10 meters (32.8084) or less. This seagrass is very recognizable as it has long bright green blades, & is the only species in the Zostera Genus along the Californian coast. The species usually grows in meadows, & it is often consumed by waterfowl. They are extremely important to the coastal ecosystem as they provide a natural spawning area for many different marine species. This species is distributed from Alaska to Baja California. This species has existed for at least 8 million years, & has always been fundamental to California’s estuarine ecosystems. Seagrass Specimen No. 2: Macrocystis Pyfiera (Giant Kelp / Bladder Kelp) This species was the second most common species found on the beach but is found extremely rarely. It is found most commonly along the eastern portion of the beach, & is not found at all on the western portion of the beach. It is found extremely uncommonly even on the eastern side, with only 2 individual specimens being found along that portion of the shore. This is largely due to the rocks blocking anything from flowing on the western side of the shoreline. Our specimen was slightly dried out, & was 6.102362 inches (15.5 centimeters) long & 1 centimeter (0.393701 inches) wide. This specimen was also found at the coordinates of 34°21’26” North & 119°26’39” West. We also found a second specimen that is 23 inches (9.05512 centimeters) long, & 1 centimeter (0.393701 inches) wide. The coordinates at which it was found are 34°21’26” North & 119°26’39” West. Macrocystis Pyfiera is technically not a seagrass or a seaweed, it is a protist, but for the purposes of this article, it will still be included. Giant kelp is usually a brownish-green colour, with bumpy thin leaves that are more than an inch wide, & bulbous air-filled fruit that make them float up in the ocean. Under optimal conditions, Giant kelp can grow to 175 feet long (53.34 meters) however it usually only reaches 100 feet. Shockingly, they can grow up to 2 feet (0.6096 meters) every day, a growth rate only matched by bamboo. Giant kelp is found from Alaska to Baja California, & is also found in Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, & certain parts of South America. They grow in rocky areas, deeper than 20 feet (6.096 meters). Seagrass Specimen No. 3: Ulva Lactuca (Sea Lettuce) Ulva Lactuca is the least commonly found species on Rincon Island State Beach by a wide margin. Our specimen wasn’t even found on the beach itself, it was found floating in the ocean by one of our field agents. For this reason, we cannot provide the coordinates for this species. Our specimen of this species was 3.34646 inches (8.5 centimeters) long &, 1 inch (2.54 centimeters) wide. This species is extremely recognizable as it is bright neon green, & looks vaguely like strips of lettuce. It is also translucent. The whole plant is bright green, & usually found in shallow areas. The seagrass is found in Europe, North America, South America, Central America, The Caribbean, The Indian Subcontinent, Southwestern Asia, Oceania, Australia, & New Zealand. In the majority of these places, they are also eaten with certain fish dishes, as they contain a very high amount of Vitamin B12. Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

The Persaud Catalogue: Scientific Journal Of Marine Biology: Seagrass Survey Of El Matador Beach This article is a part of our second newsletter titled, The Persaud Catalogue Scientific Journal of Marine Biology. In this journal, we will publish information concerning the various marine flora & fauna of certain places. This newsletter, will publish sporadically, & not on a timed basis like The Persaud Catalog. This journal is in affiliation with The Persaud Catalog, however, it is a separate entity. In today's article, we will catalog the various species of seagrass found in & around El Matador State Beach. We will state the density of these species, the place where it was found the most, & a detailed description of the species. Please note, that this was done with the correct permits, do not attempt to imitate this survey without being aware of the permits necessary to do it. On September 16th, we sent out 2 field workers to do a seagrass survey of El Matador Beach. What they found was that there were 2 primary species of seagrass, those being Zostera Marina, & Macrocystis Pyfiera. Please do not attempt this without being aware of the permits necessary, or without prior research. To be clear, this is a survey that will only be conducted once, & not yearly like the Malibu surveys. This survey is a stand-alone study. With that being said, let us delve into the seagrasses of El Matador State Beach. The Survey Itself All specimens taken for this survey were taken between 1:05 & 1:09 PM, on September 16th of 2023. This was within 2 hours of high tide, so that may influence the results of this survey. Seagrass Species No. 1: Zostera Marina (Seawrack / Eelgrass) This species was the most prominent species on the beach. It was distributed evenly throughout the cove, & leaf blades of it could be found everywhere. It would never wash up in clumps, & would wash up in individual strands. It is extremely identifiable as it is long, thin, & bright green, compared to Macrocystis, which looks completely different. Our specimen was found near the rockier areas, further up the beach. This specimen was found at coordinates 34°2’18” North, & 118°52’32” West. Our specimen was measured at approximately 14.5669 inches (37 centimeters) long, & 1 millimeter wide. This was most likely the entire strand, & not a broken off piece of a strand. This species is a true seagrass, meaning it grows directly in the sea floor, instead of growing on a holdfast. It often grows in large patches, known as seagrass meadows. This species gets up to 3 meters at its largest, but that is under very specific environments. Around California, finding Zostera Marina which is 3 meters long is incredibly rare. This species usually has white root at its base, & long thin circular leaf blades. Zostera Marina is found in very cold waters, such as the Northern Pacific, & the Atlantic. This species typically grows in coastal areas, & estuaries. It is an extremely popular food among different species of waterfowl, & cattle when they get access to it. Seagrass Species No. 2: Macrocystis Pyfiera (Giant Kelp / Bladder Kelp) This was the second most prominent species of sea flora on the beach, as it is technically not a seaweed. Giant Kelp is not a plant either, as it is actually a protist. A protist is a eukaryotic organism that is not a plant, animal, or a fungi. Throughout the beach, it would wash up in rather large clumps, & very rarely ever wash up in small amounts. This is due to the natural clumping of Giant Kelp. It is very identifiable due to its berries filled with air, & its distinctive leaf shape. Our specimen for this species was approximately 17 inches (43.18 centimeters) long, & 0.393701 inches (1 centimeter) wide. The coordinates at which this specimen was found are 34°2’17” North, & 118°52’33” West. Giant kelp is found along the Pacific coast, from Alaska to Mexico, & then from Peru to Argentina. They tend to grow in giant forests along the Pacific coast. At their maximum, they are able to grow up to 2 feet per day. They usually grow in waters 10 to 33 feet deep, in order to have enough room to thrive. They are usually found in open ocean, but smaller amounts can be found up to 300 feet out to shore. Their thallus, which looks similar to a stem, can be between 5 & 200 feet long. It is the largest algae species on planet Earth. Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

The Documented History Of Antigua This article will discuss the documented history of Antigua. Antigua is an island in the Caribbean that makes up the country of Antigua & Barbuda. The island is approximately 185.22 Nautical/Marine miles (213.147369 miles or 343.02744 kilometers) from Venezuela. It is also approximately 1311.36 Nautical/Marine miles (1509.086137 miles or 2428.63872 kilometers) from mainland Florida. Antigua is a part of the lesser Antilles & the island group known as the Leeward islands. The etymology of the name is that Antigua means ancient in Spanish. This choice of name was most likely a remanent of the Spanish conquest of the Caribbean. This name was given to them by the Spanish when they first landed on Antigua. Antigua has a total of 6 major divisions on the island. These are known as Saint John, Saint George, Saint Peter, Saint Phillip, Saint Paul, & Saint Mary. There are a total of 84 cities on Antigua, however there are unincorporated compounds. Their history was rather defined by the British as they had control of Antigua for centuries. In this article we will discuss the discovery & documented history of Antigua as a whole, The known aboriginals of Antigua, the disaster history of Antigua , & finally a segment on the Antiguan & Barbudan economy. The Documented History Of Antigua Before Colonization The Caribs occupied Antigua for centuries before colonizers came. The Ciboney also occupied Antigua. There is evidence of them tracing back 2900 B.C. The Ciboney eventually left & the Saladoid. The Saladoid migrated from northern Venezuela throughout the greater & lesser Antilles. The Saladoid people farmed & made lots of ceramic pottery. There are many archeological sites on the island where ceramic pottery can be found, these works of art were mostly made from the Saladoid. The Arawaken language spread up the island chain which made that one of Antigua’s prime languages. The Arawaks also arrived on the island in about 400 A.D. The Arawaks introduced many plants to the island which is one of the reasons as to the present biodiversity of Antigua. The Arawaks had canoes, which is how they got to the island in the first place. They most likely came from Guadeloupe or Saint Lucia. These canoes resembled the build of what we modernly know as dug out canoes. Most of the Arawaks however, Left in 1100 A.D. The remaining Arawaks, were targeted by the Caribs & faced many raids. Modernly, People of Carib & Arawak Descent still are found on the island. On Antigua & Barbuda at the time, there were 2 unique tribes of indigenous peoples. These tribes had spilt off from the Arawaks & had formed their own 2 tribes. Their religious beliefs differ severely from the main Arawaken religions. These people were known as the Galashopa & the Galapopa. The Galashopa were rather war like & did not believe in peacefulness. The word Galashopa roughly translates to “War”. The Galapopa were peaceful & did not fully mind the other tribes. The word Galapopa roughly translates into “Peace”. These tribes coexisted peacefully for many years. However, one day the Galashopa decided to attack the Galapopa & enslave them all. The Galashopa were also going to seize all settlements built by the Galapopa. On the 8th of December 1342 the Galashopa attacked the Galapopa in an ambush. However, this attack had been anticipated & the Galapopa tribe had previously prepared. In the end, the Galapopa won the war due to their men being well trained & due to them having proper equipment. The queen of Galapopa known as Marianna, assumed charge of the Galashopa territories after the war. She most likely called the islands both Antigua as Antigua meant God in her Arawaken language, but Barbuda meant devil. Due to bad whether throughout the Caribbean, sacrificial events took place in which they sacrificed things to their god. It is not exactly clear what they would sacrifice. Soon the locals realized that they had to honour both their god & their devil. So they changed the islands name back to Barbuda. As a result of this name change, the poverty rate decreased & their crops prospered for many years. After this things went well for the Galapopa until the next queen assumed power of the isles. However what transpired next cannot be blamed as a fault of the queen. This queens name was Mishlaelae, it was during her rule that Christopher Columbus arrived on Antigua. Christopher Columbus was less then friendly to the locals. He wanted to mine gold on the island & also planned to enslave all of the locals. In order to save her people from enslavement, the queen had an affair with him. It was at this point that many of the Arawaks left. After Colonization 15th Century Antigua was visited by Christopher Columbus in the year of 1493. He found the island on his 2nd Caribbean voyages He then named it Antigua. His reason for doing so was that he was naming it after a church known as Church of Santa Maria de la Antigua which is in Sevilla, Spain. He however, did not colonize the island or bring any awareness to it. He then did not do much with the island personally. This led to the island not being used by Europeans until the 17th Century. 16th Century Many of the Caribs left in the century due to scarcity of freshwater. By this point they were one of the only tribes left. What was left by the Galapopa was conquered by the Caribs but ultimately left behind. At this point most if not all of the remaining Arawaks left the island as well. 17th Century The English managed to finally colonize the island 1632. Their reasoning for doing so is that they wanted to expand their sugarcane industry. Tomas Warner the captain of the guards, was the first British governor of Antigua & Barbuda. Settlers grew many crops such as tobacco, indigo, ginger, & sugarcane. Antigua officially became a British colony in 1667. The first large sugar plantation / estate was founded & owned by Christopher Codrington. It was established in 1674. Codrington also leased Barbuda to raise supplies for his plantations. Unfortunately, work conditions were not documented. However, it can be assumed that he did not treat his workers properly as expansion was often prioritized over livelihoods. Due to the sugar generated from his plantations made the sugar industry so profitable that many farmers switched to farming sugar. It is important to note that a majority of these workers from this point on would be African slaves. This ended up causing great wealth for Antigua. As of now, Barbuda’s only city is named after him. The British government ended up granting the rights to the island over to the Codrington family in the year of 1685. They were also granted the rights to Barbuda, which they ruled until 1860. 18th Century By the early 1700’s Antigua was the only Caribbean colony with a harbour that could hold larger ships. This made it an important nautical resource of Britain. Antigua became used as a dockyard for British naval ships from the years of 1725 to 1858. It then became an important deep water port as it was sheltered & was deep water. It became an incredibly well-known English dockyard after this point. Horatio Nelson arrived in 1784 as the head of the squadron that was meant for the Leeward islands. His duty was to enforce draconian commercial shipping laws. He also developed multiple naval bases along the harbour in order to enforce these laws. This worked out to be rather successful. This also resulted in Nelsons dockyard being constructed which to date is one of the best dockyards & most valuable nautical assets on Antigua. He also influenced other major port expansions. However, he was not very respected or liked by the settlers who were already there. 19th Century In 1807, the Codrington family created a large estate that was used for purposes of slavery. This estate was used to assemble a workforce of children by means of enslaved women. This workforce of children would serve Barbuda & would export many resources to Antigua. During 1833, A very small percentage of the population who were aristocratic plantation owners, ruled the island politically & financially. Beneath them, class-wise, was the people known as Afro-Caribbean. These people were the modern day equivalent of the working class. In-between these 2 classes were the middlemen who were the Free People Of Colour & the Portuguese & Syrian Immigrants. The majority of Syrian & Portuguese immigrants came for work of various kinds, they also came for an extremely stable economy. In 1834, Britain abolished all slavery in the majority of their colonies. As a result Antigua immediately instituted full emancipation rather than having a 4-5 year waiting period. This somehow, managed to better the economic circumstances of Antigua & Barbuda. However, the sugar industry began to slow down on growth & began to decline. However, tourism began to become a larger & more demanding industry. Unfortunately, many now-free Slaves were discriminated against harshly. They often were not given enough fertile land & were not given credit at all. In the year 1843 there was a major earthquake in Antigua that caused economic issues. In 1847 there was a major hurricane that caused economic issues as well as destruction to various towns across Antigua & Barbuda. Between the years of 1847 & 1852 over 2,500 Portuguese immigrants came to the island. They mostly came from the island of Madeira which was experiencing extreme famine at the time. They quickly made small businesses & became large contributors to the economy. At this point they would have been the middle class of Antigua. They also became a large part of the agricultural workforce. You see, due to the abolition of slavery, many plantation owners were scrambling for workers. This brought up an interest in European labor, specifically the Portuguese. This ended up in many jobs being opened to the Portuguese & the Portuguese ended up filling jobs that were once done by slaves. 20th Century The main cash product changed frequently throughout the 20th century. The main cash products from the years of 1953 & 1956 were cotton, sugar, meat, cereals, local vegetables, & local fruit. Over time, the importance of crops & other types of produce went into decline as other nations were able to sell goods at a price no longer feasible to sustain in the Antiguan economy. Another factor that led towards this were Central American countries beginning to start exporting things at extremely low prices. In more recent times, however, Antigua has developed a primarily service-based economy relying on tourism as their leading source of income. Much like other islands & nations that rely on tourism, this can become problematic as their economic stability depends on the willingness of others to travel & explore the area. In the year of 1956 the Leeward islands colony was de-federated, Antigua was a member of this federation. On January 3rd of 1958 the West Indies federation was established & Antigua & Barbuda joined it that same year. However, this was short lived as it dissolved on the 31st of May 1962. Antigua longed for freedom as the Antiguan & Barbudan government persevered to join a federation. Provision was made in what is known as the West Indies Act of 1967 for Antigua to assume a status of association with the United Kingdom on the 27th of February 1967. As an associated state, Antigua became fully self-governing in all internal affairs, while the United Kingdom retained responsibility for external affairs & defense / military issues. In the year of 1981 on November 1st, Antigua & Barbuda became a sovereign entity & formally broke away from the United Kingdom. It remains in the Commonwealth however it is its own country has of 1981. In 1997, Prime Minister of Antigua & Barbuda Lester Bird announced that a group of ecologically sensitive islands just off Antigua's northeastern coast, which at the time were previously proposed for national park status, were being turned over to Malaysian developers for commercial purposes. The Guiana Island Development Project deal, calling for a 1000-room hotel, an 18-hole golf course as well as a rather luxurious casino, sparked widespread criticism by environmentalists, minority members in parliament & the press. The issue came to a head when a local resident shot the Prime Ministers brother in retal. Today, the proposed development is mired in lawsuits & politics. The Antigua & Barbuda Labour Party Or the ABLP won renewed mandates in the general elections in 1984 & 1989. In the 1989 elections, the ruling of the Antiguan & Barbudan Labour Patu won all but two of the 17 seats. During elections in March 1994 the prime ministerial power was passed from Vere Bird to his son who is known as Lester Bird. However Vere Bird decided to remain within the Antiguan & Barbudan Labour Party which won 11 of the 17 parliamentary seats. The Aboriginals Of Antigua The Saladoid Indigenous Peoples The Saladoid people lived throughout northern Venezuela & the Caribbean. They inhabited many areas of the Orinoco river. They were one of the oldest of these groups. They often made pottery & ceramics which provide some of the oldest artifacts of the Caribbean. They had 4 distinct pottery styles. These pottery styles were created by other cultures, however only 3 have been connected to existing cultures. These cultures were known as Hacienda Grande, Cuevas, & Coral-Bay Longford. They spoke an Arawaken language. They seemed to not interact with many other tribes so their attitude to them is unknown. They often made exotic jewelry with carnelian, turquoise, Lapis Lazuli, amethyst, crystal-quartz, & different types of wood. They prioritized agriculture in their lives. They had different types of farms nearby rivers & creeks. After approximately 250 B.C they diminished greatly, & after that point they slowly disappeared. The reason for this is unfortunately unknown. The Carib / Kalingo Indigenous Peoples The Caribs of Antigua were an indigenous Amerindian of the Caribbean lesser Antilles. They are also known as the Kalingo or Kalina. They also lived through South America. They spoke a language that is modernly known as Island Carib which is classified as a highly endangered language. They were one of the least peaceful tribes of the Caribbean. They had many warlike tactics & were believed to have mandatory combat training. They were taller, bulkier, & stronger then the Arawaks due to the emphasis of being a warrior & being able to defend their home. They utilized their marine resources often & had a strong fishing industry. Fish was one of the most common foods, they also were believed to have bred some fish. They had large boats which were most similar to a modern day Canoe, these boats could hold up to 12 persons. However, their largest warships could hold up to 100 persons. These boats looked similar to a modern day dug out canoe. However, they also had the ability to use & build sails. They used these to raid the Arawaks as well as to fish. They also utilized the ocean in other ways often. They fought with the other tribes of The lesser Antilles such as the Arawaks who were relatively peaceful. They hunted mammals as well. They revered the bones of their elders or family members & they burnt off fat from their enemies or prisoners of war during battle rituals. They were labelled as cannibals & savages by the Spanish & British on their individual conquests, this was in an effort to justify conquering their lands & enslaving them. The modern day word cannibal, originates from the word Carib due to their alleged cannibalistic practices. They invented certain types of primitive barbecues as well which they most likely used to barbecue the Arawaks. However, if they were cannibalistic they did not consume the entire body. Allegedly, their reasoning for this was that if they consumed a little bit of their enemy after they were dead, they would assume the characteristics of that person. Also, there is evidence to believe that early Caribs were not cannibals. They were on average approximately 5 feet 5 inches. They had a brown hue to their skin similar to that of a modern day Latin American person. They did not appear to wear clothing of any kind. The women would paint their skin with a red dye known as Roucou which is made from the extract of the seeds of the Achiote tree. The women also circled their eyes with black pigment. The male’s would also painted their bodies and on occasion wore feathered headdresses, jewelry & piercings of all kinds through their lips, and large hoop jewelry through their noses. Nose piercings were fairly common among both genders. The male’s also wore the Caracoli which was a necklace of small bones along with the teeth of defeated enemies from which a crescent-shaped bone carved ornament was suspended. The Caracoli necklace was worn to represent the courage of the wearer, it was typically worn by men & there isn’t much evidence that it was worn by women. The women also commonly lived in different houses from the men. Arts were common among the Caribs. Basket weaving was a common type of art that was done both for function & for art. Pottery was quite common among Caribs as well. They had many different structural styles of pottery. It is also important to note that most men spoke Island Carib languages, however women spoke mostly Arawakan languages. They often used bow & arrows when hunting or fighting. This weaponry unfortunately was not very helpful during the initial British Invasion. However, their boats were. They were infamous for using one of their war ships to catch European boats. This is one of the main reasons as to why Saint Lucia wasn’t colonized for such a long time. They did not have a social or societal construct & did not have any form of government. Little is known about their religion however it is believed that they practiced polytheism. The Arawak Indigenous Peoples The Arawak Indigenous peoples existed throughout the lesser Antilles & heavily throughout northern South America. They were also known as the Taino people. They spoke many different dialects of Arawaken languages. They were quite peaceful & often avoided to engage in combat. They mostly only fought in defence or if they were being directly threatened. They often did not fight with other Arawak populations. They often practiced farming of corn, beans, pepper, sweet potatoes, ground nuts, & cassava. They also practiced fishing with nets & spear fishing. They used weaving techniques to build the nets. They also bred their own fish in individual ponds. They hunt any animals that were available using spears, bows, & blow guns. They however, did not use the pelts to make clothes. Most of the time Arawaks stood naked, with men occasionally wearing loincloths. The women wore short skirts & beaded shell necklaces. They also did not make shoes of any kind. On occasions, they would paint their bodies various colours such as black, white, or red. They were described as being of medium height by Columbus, which most likely means approximately 5 feet & 3 inches. They also generally were quite slim in build. Their skin was a dark tanned colour. Their hair was a black colour & was corse. They often wore jewellery & ornaments on their neck, ears, lips, & noses. These ornaments varied in material however they were often made with clay, shell, or cotton. Some of these ornaments were braided into hair & used as hair pieces as well. They did have social & societal constructs, with each individual group of Arawaks having a chief. For fun & religious purposes, they had festivals. These festivals entailed singing, dancing, & eating food with the community. They had instruments such as wooden gongs, reed pipes, & certain types of drums. They also had a kind of primitive oven which was used to bake small flat cakes. Games were also a common past time of them, one game they invented was a ball game called Batos. Their religion was polytheistic & their gods were called Zemi. These Zemi would control various sectors of the known universe. The Ciboney Indigenous Peoples The Ciboney indigenous peoples lived all throughout the Caribbean. They lived throughout Cuba & as well as the greater & lesser Antilles. They were also known as the Siboney. Their language was unknown & it was a language was an isolate. They often stayed out of the way & lived on the coast lines. Their ambitions in relation to war & peace are unknown. They did not farm anything to our knowledge, instead opting to hunt & gather their supplies. They did not write anything down, so extremely little is known about them as the majority of them were gone before the Europeans arrived. Some of their primary sources of food were shellfish, turtles, & certain available island rodents. They also lacked in arts such as pottery & weaving. They may have originated from southern America in the areas of modern day Venezuela. If they were, they would have migrated to up to Cuba. Alternatively, they may have originated from the southern areas of modern day Florida. However, they did not have very good maritime technologies. The Most Destructive Man- Caused & Natural Disasters Of Antigua No.1 Hurricane Irma Hurricane Irma was a category 5 hurricane that struck the Leeward islands it took place from August 30th to September 13th 2017. It was the first category 5 hurricane to directly hit the Leeward Islands on file. Its highest winds were at 180 miles per hour. It was the 4th most costly tropical cyclone in Cuban & Leeward Island History. It affected all of the Caribbean, Southeastern U.S states, & Cape Verde. It caused 52 direct & 82 indirect fatalities. It cost 77.16 billion dollars in 2017. Adjusted for inflation that would be 93.81 Billion Dollars. No.2 Hurricane Luis Hurricane Luis was a category 4 hurricane that affected majority of the Caribbean. It took place from August 28th 1985 to September 20th 1985. It was the most powerful hurricane to make landfall during the 1985 Atlantic hurricane season. Its highest winds were 150 miles per hour. It affected majority of the Caribbean, the eastern united states, & Newfoundland. However, it caused extreme damage to Antigua. It caused 19 total fatalities. It coast 3.3 billion dollars in 1985. Adjusted for inflation that would be 9.14 billion. No.3 FlyMontserrat Flight 107 Flight 107 was a commercial flight that took off from Antigua V.C Bird International Airport & was meant to reach Montserrat John A. Osborne. The aircraft type was a Britten-Norman Islander. During take off there was engine failure & the plane crashed. It caused 3 fatalities & 1 Injury. There was a total of 1 survivor from the crash. The Economy & Public Stock Market Of Antigua & Barbuda Antigua & Barbuda as a whole are economically stable, however they did loose a mass amount of income due to the pandemic of 2020. Their nominal GDP was 1.611 billion USD. Their Currency is the Eastern Caribbean Dollar or the XCD. They are a tourism & service-based economy. They rank 176th on country by GDP. Their GDP per capita is 14,900.80 USD. Their inflation has only been 1.205% since 2018. Their unemployment rate is 11% of the total population. Their public debt is 458 million dollars as of 2023. Their primary industries are: agriculture, fishing, mining, animal husbandry, & tourism. Directories / Credits https://www.britannica.com/place/Antigua-and-Barbuda/History http://www.antigua-barbuda.org/aghis01.htm https://www.studycountry.com/guide/AG-history.htm https://history.state.gov/countries/antigua-barbuda https://www.antiguanice.com/v2/client.php? https://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/antigua_barbuda.htm https://www.everyculture.com/A-Bo/Antigua-And-Barbuda.html https://www.britannica.com/topic/Carib https://amp.theguardian.com/world/2018/apr/24/archeology-caribbean-carib-people-cannibalism-colonial-history-wrong https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ciboney https://www.britannica.com/topic/Arawak https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/27946/chapter-abstract/211886548?redirectedFrom=fulltext http://npshistory.com/series/archeology/seac/air/salt-river-bay.pdf https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/histarch/research/haiti/en-bas-saline/taino-culture/ https://www.weather.gov/mfl/hurricaneirma https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/data/tcr/AL131995_Luis.pdf Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa

Marine Hall Of Distinction: Shintarō Hirase This article is a part of our collection known as the Marine Hall Of Distinction. It is a different series from our main monthly series & has no connection to the main monthly series. In this special collection we will discuss marine biologists who we feel have served marine biology & oceanography the most. We do this in order to commemorate these marine biologists & to show gratitude for everything they have contributed to our oceans. This collection has no relation to the main months series. This series publishes on the 25th of every month, shortly after our article on the oceanic environment of a certain region on the 20th. Our marine biologist for this months article, is Shintarō Hirase, the formalizer of malacology. He has also been dubbed “Japans foremost malacologist” of the 20th Century. Shintarō Hirase is a Japanese Malacologist, who had one of the largest collections of molluscs in world history. He is most well known for his work titled “A Collection Of Japanese Shells With Illustrations & Colours”, which contains over 1,360 shells. He was a pioneer in the field of Malacology along with his Father, Yoichirō Hirase, who was also a Malacologist. Before he began in the field, Malacology was an extremely underdeveloped field in Japan. In his wake, he left an admirable legacy, as well as a tremendous effect on marine biology. In this article we will discuss his early life & education, his later life & career, & finally his awards, honourables, achievements & accomplishments. With that being said, let us delve into the life of Shintarō Hirase. His Early Life & Education Hirase was born on February 28th of 1884, at Hukura, on Awaji Island, Japan, He was born the eldest son of Yoichirō Hirase, a Malacologist & Businessman. Shortly after he was born, he moved from Awaji Island to Kyoto. It was here were his father opened his shell shop, “Hirase Shoten”. Though Hirase grew up around his fathers mollusc collection, as a young man he did not have much of an interest in shells. He graduated from Third College, & took psychology courses at Kyoto Imperial University, which is the second oldest university in Japan. In 1914 Hirase Shell Museum Opened, which was a collection of sea shells from Japans various islands gathered by Shintarō & His Father, Yoichirō. In 1914 he enrolled in a zoology course with the Faculty of Science at Tokyo Imperial University. He got his masters degree from Tokyo Imperial University in 1917, & continued to do post doctoral work studying molluscs at the university until 1922. His Later Life & Career In 1918, he began publishing essays on shellfish anatomy, taxonomy, ecology, & bivalves in general. Unfortunately soon after, Hirase Shell Museum fell onto hard times. This caused him to choose the path of being a professor, & a malacologist. While still attending his Graduate School, he began lecturing on natural sciences in Meiji University. He also began working as an instructor at Hosei University, & in Secondary Schools that are affiliated with Seikei University. As a professor, he was said to be tolerant, calm, respectful, & humane. He was said to also root many of his classes in philosophy & literature. Similar to his father, he was a man of sophisticated taste & style. He was said to enjoy music, play piano & clarinet, & to enjoy foreign novels in their purest forms. He was at the very least bilingual, & possibly a polyglot. He also enjoyed Nihonga Paintings, & purchased many of these paintings. In 1927, shortly before his death, he described Oscanius Testudinarius Hirase, a species of Hirase died while working at his desk, on a collection of shell illustrations. His last words were, “Give the cockscomb pearl mussels some water, please, so their nerves do not dry out”. This shows that even in the very end, what mattered most was his molluscs. He passed away on September 9th of 1929, at age 55, due to short kidney disease. His obituary was published in the Malacological Society of London. His collection at its largest, was 15,000 specimens. After the bombings some of his specimens were transferred to the Research Institute For Natural Resources In Tokyo, but the majority were still stored at his home. Unfortunately, due to the bombings in Japan, the majority of these specimens were completely destroyed. In 1936, he had the species Babylonia pallida Hirase & Berthella gotoi Hirase named after him. After 1948, the remainder of his collection was transferred to Research Institute for Natural Resources. Today, there are 5,000 specimens left from Hirase’s collection. In modern day, copies of his articles & collections are still available for purchase. His Awards, Honourables, Achievements, & Accomplishments He has about 6 different mollusc species named after him due to his massive impacts in the field. He was the Co-Founded the Malacological Society of Japan, along with Tokubei Kuroda, He alongside his father assembled the largest collection of Molluscs in the World. Directories / Credits Citation No. 1: “Kajin - Shell Men” Written By Unknown & Published on the 8th of March, 2018. Published by Living Culture - Lixil. Retrieval Date: September 13th, 2023. https://livingculture.lixil.com/en/topics/assets/kaijin_3.pdf Citation No. 2: “Shintaro Hirase” Written By Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published By FamousScientists.org. Retrieval Date: September 13th, 2023. https://www.famousscientists.org/shintaro-hirase/ Citation No. 3: “Shintaro Hirase Facts” Written By Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published By Soft Schools. Retrieval Date: September 13th, 2023. https://www.softschools.com/facts/scientists/shintaro_hirase_facts/1895/ Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

The Oceans Surrounding The Island Of Antigua Todays article will discuss the oceans surrounding the Caribbean island of Antigua. This island makes up the country of Antigua & Barbuda. The island is approximately 185.22 Nautical/Marine miles (213.147369 miles or 343.02744 kilometers) from Venezuela. It is also approximately 1311.36 Nautical/Marine miles (1509.086137 miles or 2428.63872 kilometers) from mainland Florida. Antigua is a part of the lesser Antilles & the island group known as the Leeward islands. The etymology of the name is that Antigua means ancient in Spanish. This choice of name was most likely a remanent of the Spanish conquest of the Caribbean. This name was given to them by the Spanish when they first landed on Antigua. It is tropical & for this reason it has extreme biodiversity. Its oceans are also somewhat undiscovered. This makes it a common place to find strange & interesting marine species. It also has many interesting oceanic nutrients that say northern Caribbean countries would not have. In this article we will discuss the salinity, temperature, marine geography & terrain, the most important marine ecosystems, the documented marine flora & fauna, the ocean acidification & climate change, & the utilization of marine resources on the island. With that being said, let us delve into the Land of the 365 Beaches. The Salinity, Temperature, Tides, Basic Information, & Marine Geography Of Antigua Antigua is an island that exists just northeast of Montserrat . The actual salinity level of Antigua is undocumented. However, it is most likely between 34 & 35 parts per thousand. The reason for that is due to that being the average salinity level of the Caribbean sea. Antigua, exists in the Caribbean sea. There are also no factors that would Interfere with the salinity levels. The marshlands that exist do not release very much water, which is a reason as to the constant stability of the salinity of Antigua. The temperature of Antigua can be found on a multitude of sites, such as https://seatemperature.net, https://www.seatemperature.org, https://seatemperature.info, https://www.seatemperatu.re , & https://weather-and-climate.com. The tides are also found on those websites. They usually do not get over 2.73 feet (0.832104 meters). The deepest point within 12 Nautical/Marine miles (13.8094 miles or 22.224 kilometers) of Antigua is 2296.6 feet (700.00368 meters) deep. It does not have very many currents around it, & when currents do form they are rather predictable. The riptide is not very bad & is not present to a dangerous extent. Swimming & other recreational activities such as surfing & leisure boating often take place on the oceans surrounding Antigua. The eastern most sides of the island however, do get large waves. This is great for an activity such as surfing however it may be dangerous to an average swimmer. The water is relatively unpolluted & has incredible visibility. This additionally provides amazing views as to the marine ecosystems. Sand walls & drop offs within close proximity of shoreline are not common either. Oceanic mounts can occasionally be found off the coast of Antigua. However, these mounts are never volcanic in nature. Most of the time, the sea floor will consist of sand, rock, mud, & coral. The Most Important Marine Ecosystems Of Antigua Coral Reefed Areas Coral reefed areas are found in many places around Antigua. There are no specific large coral reefs however the southern, eastern, & northern sides of the island have many coral reefs & types of coral shelving. This however, can cause negative affects such as dead coral washing up on beaches & causing injuries to animal species. This can also disrupt the laying behaviours of turtles. These coral reefs are usually found anywhere from 5 feet deep to 40 feet deep. They are usually found off shore by a few hundred meters. However in certain areas they are found much closer to the shoreline. They can also occasionally, be spotted from harbours. The only type of coral reefs that are found are fringing coral reefs. 76 square kilometers of Antigua & Barbuda’s oceans are designated coral reefs. Seagrass Beds There is no specific place that these types of ecosystems are found, this type of ecosystem is incredibly versatile. Many different types of vertebrates & invertebrates are found here. Usually smaller animals are found here, this makes this ecosystem extremely fragile. Usually, this is an area where animals such as sea horses or fish give birth. These areas are mostly found 100 to 7000 feet (30.48 meters to 2133.6 meters) off shore. However, they can be found in open ocean as well. The Most common documented seagrass species found in Antiguan waters is Halophila stipulacea. Mangrove Forests The mangrove forests are mostly on the north west area, near Hanson’s bay. There is a total of 10 square kilometers of mangrove forest near Hansons bay. These mostly consist of mangrove trees, swampland like conditions. Many animals filter in from the ocean through streams to these areas, alligators are commonly found here. Antigua does apparently, have alligators, however they do not have crocodiles. Seagrasses are commonly found in these mangrove areas as well. Nutrients are in abundance in this area. At its deepest these areas are usually 15 feet deep. The Documented Marine Flora Of Antigua Antigua is not very diverse when it comes to marine flora. There is only 1 known seagrass species found in any Antiguan waters. That species is known as Halophila stipulacea. It is an invasive species that made its way over from the Mediterranean. The Most likely way that is got to Antigua is through human introduction. Macro algae however, are a bit more plentiful. 2 species from the macro algae genus of Halimeda have been found in Antigua. These species are what is known as green algae. Green algae however, look very similar to seagrass. A unique characteristic of green algae, is that the algal body known as the thallus is composed of green calcified segments. It has calcium carbonate deposits deep in its tissues. This renders it inedible to most herbivores. There are no kelp species found nearby Antigua. Also, we will not be including coral as they are technically classifed under the kingdom of Animalia. There are no endemic marine plants to Antigua. The Documented Marine Fauna Of Antigua Antigua is incredibly biodiverse when it comes to marine fauna due to the high amounts of sheltered areas & food. Due to this, Antigua has a total of 35 marine protected areas. This totals less then 0.1% of the Antiguan & Barbudan ocean. Marine fauna often flourishes around Antigua, due to this reason there are many migratory schedules that animals have in which they live temporarily in Antigua. We unfortunately will not be discussing organisms that are single celled or that are categorized are plankton. Antigua’s appeal for animals is also that they are often extremely protected compared to in other national waters. This provides a safe domain for the creatures to live & thrive. There are also no known marine animals that are endemic to Antigua. The most notable & common marine species that are found in the oceans surrounding Antigua are: Megaptera Novaeangliae (Humpback Whale), Tursiops Truncatus (Common Bottlenose Dolphins), Stenella Longirostris (Spinner Dolphins), Eretmochelys Imbricata (Hawksbill Turtle), Dermochelys Coriacea (Leatherback Turtle), Chelonis Mydas (Green Turtle), Aetobatus Narinari (Spotted Eagle Rays), Hypanus Americanus (Southern Stingrays), Ocyurus Chrysurus (Yellowtail Snapper), Parrotfish of various species, Holocentrus Rufus (Longspine Squirrelfish), Enchelycore Carychroa (Caribbean Chestnut Moray Eels), Heteroconger Longissimus (Brown Garden Eels), Equetus Punctatus (Spotted Drum), (Honeycomb Cowfish), Lactophrys Triqueter (Smooth Trunkfish), Epinephelus Striatus (Nassau Grouper), Mulloidichthys Martinicus (Yellow Goat Fish), Chromis Cyanea (Blue Chromis), Chromis Multilineata (Brown Chromis), Halichoeres Garnoti (Yellow Headed Wrasse), Bothus Mancus (Peacock Flounder), Myripristis Jacobus (Black Bar Soldierfish), Halichoeres Radiatus (Puddingwife Wrasse), Carangoides Ruber (Bar Jack) & Heteropriacantus Cruentatus (Glasseye Snapper). How The Marine Resources Of Antigua Were Often Utilized Antigua has many marine resources that have been utilized in many different ways throughout the centuries. Historically, whalers often used Antigua for the purpose of hunting whales. These whales would often be used for whale oil, whale bones, & whale meat. Otherwise, commercial fishing was & still is incredibly popular due to the high density of edible fish. It is used for marine tourism as eco tourism makes up a large percent of their total GDP. Directories / Credits https://www.agrra.org/country/antigua/ https://www.agrra.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/ATG-Report-Card_2016_WebLowRes.pdf https://parkscaribbean.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/Protected-Areas-Analysis-for-Antigua-and-Barbuda-2010.pdf https://www.ecomagazine.com/in-depth/the-enigmatic-seagrass https://www.fao.org/3/ca9849en/ca9849en.pdf https://abstvradio.com/alligator-search-in-antigua-continues/ https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00302014 https://caribbeannewsservice.com/elkhorn-marine-conservancy-to-plant-thousands-of-corals-on-degraded-reefs-in-antigua/ https://www.cbd.int/doc/world/ag/ag-nr-01-en.pdf https://seastuff.com/locations/antigua Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa

Ode To Oceanography: An Antique Nautical Map Of The Mediterranean Sea This article is the third instalment in the Ode to Oceanography series. This series will publish on the 15th of every month, until we run out of antique nautical maps to analyze, though that will not be for many decades. Once that happens, we will keep the series running, but we will change the article format. In these articles, will take an antique nautical map & analyze it in its entirety. These maps will not strictly be on open oceanic waters, they may be on rivers or occasionally, bays. We will also discuss the methods that may have been used to make the map, considering the time period, & the country of origin. These maps will come from a variety of sources, though they will mainly come from Maps Of Antiquity, a wonderful New England map shop. These maps will come from varying time periods, & will not be in any particular historical order. Today’s map up for analysis, is one of the first ever marine surveys ever taken of the Mediterranean. The Mediterranean measures at approximately 965,300 square miles (2,500,115.52 square kilometers), which is a lot of area to encompass. It showcases the northern areas of Africa, & the Black sea. This map is a genuine, Heather, Mediterranean map. This map is in extraordinary condition, aside from the paper being slightly yellowed by time. In this article we will discuss the map itself & the translation of certain sections of the map, & a surface level analysis on this antique nautical map. With that being said let us delve into the Mediterranean Sea. The Antique Map Itself This map is in English, so there is no need for translation into English. We unfortunately, are unable to translate this into any other European language, unless we forego complete accuracy. This map has an incredible accuracy, even compared to modern day charts. There are very few islands left off off of this, & the coastline is very accurate. All countries directly bordering the Mediterranean, are extremely clearly labelled. This map is uncoloured, most likely to cut down on production time. Overall, this chart is pristine. A Surface Level Analysis Of The Map This map was made in the year 1812, but was revised in 1818. It is unknown where exactly this map was found, or who was the original owner of it. This map was originally made by William Heather, a British nautical cartographer, but it was revised by John William Norie, a British hydrographer. This map was not made for military purposes, & was not used for such purposes either. The map unfortunately has no legends, or areas with marine creatures outlined on it. This chart does not have a specific name. This map does not have any topographical feautures outlined on the map. Though we cannot for certain say which technique this was made with, the most likely method is the engraving method, which was the most common & traditional at the time. In this technique, there are 5 jobs, the mapmaker, the engraver, the printer, the papermaker, & the colourist. The first step in this process is that the mapmaker will go out & make a hand-drawn map of the area where the map will encompass. Effectively, the mapmaker is the informant who makes the first copy. After this, the engraver will create a design of the map in reverse on a metal, usually copper, surface. Usually there would only be 1-2 plates used, however it differs depending on the size of the map. After the copper plate is made, the printer will heat the copper panel, & then proceed to lather it with ink. They will then wipe the copper panel down to the point where ink is only on the grooves of the panel. Then after this, the printer will press damp paper onto the ink, & hang it up to dry. To conclude, the colourist will touch up the map & decorate it by adding in details, such as shorelines & shoals. Directories / Credits All credit for this map analyzed today goes to Maps Of Antiquity, a wonderful New England map shop. To purchase this map, any other maps, or any other cartographic objects, please visit mapsofantiquity.com . To be clear, this is not an advertisement for Maps Of Antiquity, as we do not have a partnership with them. Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

The Pacific Gray Whale Of Malibu, California This month’s article shall discuss.. Malibu, California! Malibu, California is a city located along the coast of Southern California. It is famed for its beautiful beaches & it’s wide array of celebrities. Malibu is located in Los Angeles county, approximately 32.60 miles from Downtown Los Angeles. What is not well known about Malibu, is the fact that Malibu’s beaches are flooded by many different species of marine life. It is not often seen that Malibu offers a unique marine environment compared to other California coastal areas. For example, in Malibu Lagoon State Beach, many wading birds will swim around the lagoon & watch swimmers alike. Not only that, but Malibu is a prime area for Mussel hunting. Malibu has an abundance of Mussels so you may take them & eat them, however there are certain months of the year in which they are poisonous, so make sure to do research as to if they are safe to eat. Malibu is also a prime area to fish off of a pier, as the Malibu Sport Fishing pier is always open & extremely busy. On this pier, a fishing license is not required to fish. The majority of Malibu does require a fishing permit, so make sure to check the areas in which you are fishing. There is one species in particular which is somewhat elusive to humans, yet found commonly in Malibu. This species is the Gray Pacific Whale (Eschrichtius Robustus). The Gray Pacific Whale is a species of baleen whale with a distinctive white mottling pattern that adorns their grey skin. They are highly migratory & will migrate a seasonal 10,000 to 14,000 miles each winter from Sea of Japan to California. They are well known for this as not many other whale species travel this far in a single winter. Pacific Gray Whales at one point were known as “Devil Fish” due to their aggressive behaviour towards whalers. Pacific Gray whales used to be found in the North Atlantic, but they were hunted into extinction by humans in the late 18th Century. In this month of December, Pacific Gray Whales may be seen from various coastal points in Malibu as this is the season they are found across California. In this article, we shall discuss the life of the Pacific Gray Whale, The mating & reproductive habits, tactics, cycles, strategies, & procedures of the Pacific Gray Whale, the distribution of the Pacific Gray Whale, & finally, the scientific detailings of the gray whale. With that being said, let us delve into the majestic Devil Fish. The Life Of The Pacific Gray Whale The Pacific Gray Whale was first described by Wilhelm Lilljeborg, a swedish zoologist. This species was first described in the year 1861. He discovered by looking at fossil that was found of this species in the Baltic Sea. The Pacific Gray Whale reaches a length of 14.9352 meters (49 feet) at its maximum. This length does differ between sexes, as the females are slightly larger. It reaches a maximum weight of 41 metric tonnes (90,389.5 pounds & 41,000 kilograms). This species of whale in particular lives on average between 55-70 years. Though, one female was recorded to have lived 75-80 years so it is possible for them to have longer life-spans. Since this is a cetacean, it is extremely intelligent. They are not very social & they do not live in familial groups. They do display some level of intelligence, but in contrast to a bottlenose dolphin or an orca they are not very smart. However, in constrast to the majority of other oceanic animals they rank extremely high. They are in fact some of the best communicators of the ocean. They are often solitary however they do communicate with other whales. This species in particular has existed for at minimum 100,000 years, as this is the farthest back a mass migration of this species between the Pacific Ocean & the Atlantic Ocean as been recorded. This species has not been studied in captivity, so it is not being actively observed. Pacific Gray Whales will occasionally approach small boats & allow humans to touch them. They seem to enjoy this, so this indicates that they have a positive relationship with mankind. They are aggressive towards harpooners who attack them, so they can be violent but only if provoked. Since they are highly migratory, they are not territorial & will not fight over territory. They can swim up to 11 miles per hour (17.7028 kilometers per hour), however their average speed is at a mere at 5-8 miles per hour (8.04672 to 12.8748 kilometers per hour). They swim by rapidly flexing their tails up & down & steer using their flippers. They are baleen whales, meaning they strain their food out of the water using their large mouths. They feed by dragging themselves on the bottom of the ocean & consuming whatever they strain in. They are able to deflect sediment by using the fringes on their mouth which catches the sediment, but not the crustaceans. They primarily feed on crustaceans, they are not cannibalistic in any capacity. They will not feed while migrating or during winter, since they have a very slow metabolism which helps them to build up fat in their body. This helps them keep themselves both insulated & fed during the winter or while they are migrating. They will consume an average of 16,000 small creatures per square yard that they swim. They usually take short dives that last 3-4 minutes, although it is somewhat unclear how many times they do this per day or how much ground they are able to cover in such a short amount of time. Using all information on hand, they most likely cover 366.6666666432 yards each time they dive down. This means that they may get as many as 5,866,666.66629 small crustaceans each time they dive. They do not seem to be nocturnal hunters. Their largest natural predators are large shark species & killer whales of various kinds. This species is marked as least concern on the IUCN red list. An adult Pacific Gray Whale will have white mottled skin with small eyes that are located nearby the mouth. They do not have a dorsal finn, so this makes them slightly more noticeable. They also often have barnacles growing on them, & whale lice. These barnacle formations are in a higher concentration nearby the tail & the head of the whale. The Mating & Reproductive Habits, Tactics, Cycles, Strategies, & Procedures Of The Pacific Gray Whale The Pacific Gray whale mates via sexual reproduction. They are not monogamous & will mate with many different whales over the course of their lifetime. There are in no capacity hermaphroditic in any capacity & do not have the ability to change sexes. Both males & females will become fully sexually mature between the ages of 6 to 12 years. This species does lactate after the whale calf is born. It is unknown when exactly the females & males are most fertile, but we estimate their most fertile years to be before 36 years. Their gestation period can be extended to 13 months, however it is most often 12 months. The mother will give birth every 24 months to 32 months, or every 2-3 years after her first pregnancy. However the length between pregnancy may increase with her age. They do appear to have a specific mating season, that being late November to early December. Breeding does take place throughout the year, but these are the most concentrated times of calf conception. The actual mating ritual itself is unclear, however it is known that there may be up to 3 partners mating simultaneously all with one another. After the female is pregnant for 12-13 months, she will give live birth. The mother will give birth usually in a lagoon less then 4 meters deep. They do have a specific place where they all give birth, that place being Mexico. They will give birth in various Mexican lagoons & bays. She will only bear a single calf & the idea of having twins is practically impossible. Once the newborn calf is brought into the world, she will hold it at the top of the lagoon in order to ensure that it is breathing properly. Mother whales of this species are extremely violent towards anything they perceive as a threat to their baby. She will lactate until the calf is 6 to 7 months old & then the calf will begin consuming solid food. After 1 year of the calf being alive, it will become independent of its mother & go to its mothers same feeding ground. It will inherit the mothers feeding ground. After this, the mother will cease to be a part of the child’s life. The mother will then repeat this process with her next calf. Also, this species of whale does not often travel in a pod, instead opting to travel alone. The Distribution Of The Pacific Gray Whale The Pacific Gray Whale is found throughout the Pacific ocean, specifically the northern Pacific. Every year, they will migrate from Japan to California & Alaska. This makes it so that they are often found on the western coast of the united states, as well as the Alaskan gulf. They are highly migratory creatures & will not stay in one place. They are often found in shallower regions of the Pacific Ocean. It is extremely rare to find one of them deep down in the ocean. They will often spend their summers in Japan & Korea then migrate to California in the winter. They are often also found in coastal areas unless they are migrating. The Scientific Detailings Of The Pacific Gray Whale Possibly the most interesting thing about the Pacific Gray Whale, or whales in general, is their blowhole located atop their skull. What is not often known is that the blowhole on a whale, is their nostril. Since they have a hole atop their head, they do not need to get completely out of the water in-order to breathe. This helps them preserve energy & sleep properly. They use their blowhole by taking breathed of air at the surface, then contracting the muscles around the blowhole so that the blowhole is tightly closed. They close it while underwater so that water does not get into the whales lungs. Their bones are not hollow but instead are somewhat thin. Since they are baleen whales, they have teeth plates that they use to strain in krill. They have frills around their teeth that will catch any debris & dirt from entering the whales mouth. They have between 130 & 180 different baleen plates. These plates are made of keratin, which makes them flexible yet durable. They play an extremely important role in the ecosystem of Malibu by eating the amount of krill they do, without them there would be many food chain issues. Bones of them often wash up on beaches, specifically their heads. Also they have only 1 singular fossil of them to be discovered to this date. This fossil was discovered off of the coast of Southern California from the Pleistocene period. This would date it to be between as old as 50,000 to 120,000 years. Their phylum is Chordata meaning that they developed these 5 characteristics all species under the phylum of chordata develop 5 similar characteristics either In adulthood or as juveniles. The characteristics that they develop include, a notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, endostyle or thyroid, pharyngeal Slits, & a post-anal tail. Their class is Mammalia. Mammalia is classified by the production of milk by the mother for their child to nurse, a neocortex which is a region of the brain, some capacity of fur or hair, & three middle ear bones. There are currently 6,400 species categorized under the class of Mammalia. Their order is Artiodactyla. which are even toed ungulates. Species categorized under Artiodactyla are ungulates, hoofed animals which bear weight equally on two of their five toes, these toes are the third & fourth toes. The other three toes are either present, absent, vestigal, or pointing posteriorly. Their infraorder is that of Cetacea. Key characteristics of this infraorder are their fully aquatic lifestyle, streamlined body shape, often large size & exclusively carnivorous diet. Another characteristic is their incredible social intelligence. There are roughly 90 species categorized under Cetacea. Their family is that of Eschrichtiidae. This family contains 4 genera yet only 1 species. That species would be the Pacific Gray Whale. The majority of the genera in this family have fossils that date back to the Pliocene era. This family was named to honour the Danish zoologist Daniel Fredrik Eschricht. Their genus is that of Eschrichtius & is also named after Daniel Fredrik Eschricht. There is only 2 species in this genus, those species being Eschrichtius Robustus & Eschrichtius Akishimaensis. Their Binomial name is Eschrichtius Robustus. Directories / Credits https://journeynorth.org/tm/gwhale/ExpertAnswer13.html https://panamajack.com/blogs/under-the-sea/8-things-you-should-know-about-gray-whales https://animalia.bio/gray-whale https://www.acsonline.org/gray-whale https://oceantoday.noaa.gov/whaleanatomy/ Gray Whales (Eschrichtiidae) - Encyclopedia.com Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa

This months article series will discuss.. The Lesser Antilles Island Of Antigua! This island makes up the Caribbean country of Antigua & Barbuda. It is approximately 185.22 Nautical/Marine miles (213.147369 miles or 343.02744 kilometers) from Venezuela. It is also approximately 1311.36 Nautical/Marine miles (1509.086137 miles or 2428.63872 kilometers) from mainland Florida. Antigua is a part of the lesser Antilles & the Leeward islands. The etymology of the name is that Antigua means ancient in Spanish. This choice of name was most likely a remanent of the Spanish conquest of the Caribbean. Since its in the Caribbean sea, it has many nutrients & many different types of interesting species. Its nutrients & high amount of smaller organisms attracts many of these animals. One of them who is unfortunately invasive, is the Red Lion Fish. The red lion fish is frequently confused with its close relative, Pterois Miles. However the 2 are completely different species. It lives in Antigua year-round & frequently sting tourists. They are known for their lordly appearance. Their large fins that extend out often make it appear like a lion. They are in relatively high concentration around Antigua & the Caribbean, however they are native to the Indo-pacific regions. In this article we will discuss the life of the red lion fish, the mating procedures, tactics, practices, & cycles of the red lion fish, the distribution of red lion fish, the scientific detailings of the red lion fish, & what to do in the event that you are stung by a red lion fish. The Life Of The Red Lion Fish The Red lion fish has existed in the Indo-pacific for centuries, however it was first introduced to the Atlantic in the 1980s. It is not known how it was released into the ocean, but quickly the breeding population grew. The first sightings of them were off the coast of southern Florida near areas of Miami. However in the Indo-Pacific they have been featured throughout many cultures which suggests when they were discovered. The fully matured adults are approximately 16 inches (40.64 centimeters) regardless of gender. However, they may be up to 18 inches (45.72 centimeters) in size. The juveniles may be as small as 1 inch or sometimes even less. The life span of the red lion fish in the wild is unknown however in captivity it is up to 10 years regardless of gender. They are approximately 2.5 pounds (1.13398 kilograms) at their peak weight regardless of weight. Their level of intelligence is higher then most other types of fish. They are not often social & do not form emotional bonds with each other. They also do not have any form any kind of hierarchy. It is unknown how long Lion Fish as a whole have existed. They often live a life of solitude & will fiercely protect the area that they call home. They are extremely territorial in this way. They are aggressive towards other fish however they will generally stay away from humans unless they feel threatened. They generally will not interact with humans at all. They will consume any types of crustaceans & small fish. They have no preference, & will also sometimes consume creatures much larger then them. They are believed to be nocturnal hunters as they are often found with full stomachs during the day. They metabolism is normal compared to other fish. They are not cannibalistic in any form. They also have no teeth & consume their prey with one bite. They have no known natural predators which is why there are so many of them. They also seem to have been able to adjust to lower & higher salinity levels. It is classified as Least concern on the IUCN red list. These fish are frequently kept in tanks meaning that they can be distributed without cause of harm to the species as a whole. They have a distinctive brown or maroon & white stripes / bands covering their entire being. They have fleshy tentacles above their eyes & below the mouth fan like pectoral fins long separated dorsal spines 13 dorsal spines 10-11 dorsal soft rays 3 anal spines & 6-7 anal soft rays. They are extremely territorial & will murder other fish over territory. The Mating Procedures, Practices, Cycles, & Tactics Of The Red Lion Fish Lionfish are incredibly beautiful when it comes to mating. They mate via sexual reproduction. They are not monogamous & do not form social or emotional bonds. They are also not hermaphroditic. The female lion fish reach sexual maturity at 1 year of age. It is unknown when the males reach sexual maturity. The females will produce 2 egg sacks every 4 days, these egg sacks hold the unfertilized eggs. They will hold up to 15,000 eggs, however not all will be able to be fertilized. With these numbers, the female will release 2,737,500 eggs every year. These eggs will then be released during the courtship dance. The males will go around looking for a female for days on end, to intimidate rival males & attract the females they will puff up their fins. Once the female & the make decide to initiate the courtship ritual they will face each other & ascend slowly. At this point it is when the females will release her egg sacks & the male will turn upside down in order to release his sperm to the eggs. He will release approximately 10,000 to 30,000 sperm. He will then spray this sperm on the eggs. After this courtship ritual, the 2 will swim away & will most likely not see each other again. They do not care for their young at all after this point. These egg sacks will go into a gestation period for 24 to 36 hours & then hatch. After this point, they swim out into the ocean. These egg sacks are approximately 1.5 inches long & 0.7 inches in width on average. The image above depicts the egg sack of a red lion fish. These egg sacks contain a noxious chemical that the children will be soaked in once they are born. This noxious chemical makes the juveniles less likely to be eaten compared to another species that does not have the chemical. Very little is known about the larval stage of the Red Lion Fish. They do not appear to have a specific mating season, instead they mate year round regardless of climate. The Distribution Of The Red Lion Fish The Red lion fish is native to the Indo-Pacific. However, they were released into the Atlantic Ocean in the 1980’s & have grown to have a large population throughout the Caribbean. There is evidence suggesting that lion fish have become more tolerant to lower salinity levels. This evidence was provided in a thesis by Aaron Hasenei. This is a reason as to how they have been able to permanently establish themselves in the Atlantic ocean rather then the pacific. They are found as southern as central Brazil & as northern as the state of North Carolina. They are not found west of the panama canal. The Scientific Detailings Of The Red Lion Fish The Bone structure of a lion fish is incredibly interesting due to its very strange spines that stick out. These spines are incredibly boney & are often 2-4 inches. They stick out in a strange way that make it appear almost similar to a lions main, which is most likely how it got its name. There are no known differences between bone structure in the males & the females. They do not have very much cartilage or muscle, which makes their main bones appear to pop out. It is not exactly known how the female releases the egg sack, or where she releases the egg sack from. The lion fish has a very strange way of hunting. You see, during an experiment it was found that they often preferred prey that were faster then themselves. Strangely, they also were found to be more successful at catching these prey. In this experiment which was conducted by Ashley N. Peterson & Matthew J. Mchenry, a Pterois Voltians (Red Lion Fish) was made to hunt a Chromis Viridis (Green Chromis). Even though the Red lion fish was half as fast as the Green Chromis, it showed a 61% rate of success in catching the fish. It was also discovered during this experiment that they use a persistent predation strategy to catch their prey. Their teeth are incredibly small & are on the upper & lower jaw. They have an alleviated appetite however they do not have an alleviated metabolism. This may be their reason for expanding their range of living. They also consume as much as 50% more in the summer months then in the winter. Their phylum is Chordata meaning that they developed these 5 characteristics all species under the phylum of chordata develop 5 similar characteristics either In adulthood or as juveniles. The characteristics that they develop include, a notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, endostyle or thyroid, pharyngeal Slits, & a post-anal tail. Their class is Actinopterygii, this means that they are ray-finned fish. This also means that their actinopterygian fin rays attach directly to the proximal or basal skeletal elements. Their order is Scorpaeinformes. This is an order of ray skinned fish such as lion fish & sculpins. It is one of the largest orders of ray skinned fish as it has 1,320 species currently categorized under it. Their family is Scorpaenidae. This a family that holds most of the worlds venomous marine fish. Species under this family are mostly found in the Indo-pacific. The etymology of their name is that it comes from the word scorpionfish. The reason for that is because most animals under this family sting with venomous mucus. Their genus is Pterois. This genus is a genus of venomous marine fish. All species of lionfish are categorized under this genus. One of the main characteristics of this genus is that, most of the fish are coloured a bright bold red. This red signals that the fish is venomous. Their binomial name is known as, Pterois Voltians. What To Do If You Are Stung By A Red Lion Fish Lion fish do not sting unless they believe that you are a threat. In the event that you are stung on Antigua by a Red Lion Fish here are some steps you may take to minimize damage. Step 1. Get Out Of The Body Of Water. Immediately exit the water if you realize that you have been stung. This is crucial to make sure that you can receive proper medical attention. Step 2. Remove Pieces Of The Spine From Your Leg. Most likely there will be pieces of the lion fish still stuck in your leg. Do not attempt to do this with bare hands. Use tweezers & gloves in order to remove them in order to prevent further damage. If you do not have gloves, use a strong barrier that will insure that your hands will not touch the spine. Step 3. Wash The Area With Freshwater & Soap. This step is to make sure that any other foreign objects are removed. Do not use alcohol. If you have it, use antiseptic towelettes as well. Step 4. Control Any Bleeding That May Be Happening. The site that was stung may be bleeding. Using a clean towel or cloth, apply pressure to the site that was stung. This will cause clotting of the blood which will stop the blood loss. Do this for as long as necessary. Step 5. Apply Heat In Order To Break The Venom Down. Use a heating pad in order to apply heat to the wound. This will both break the venom down & reduce swelling. Always bring a reusable heating pad if you are in an area with lion fish as a sting is always possible. If you cannot get a heating pad put hot water in a thermos. If you are using hot water, make sure that the water is below 120° degrees Fahrenheit (48.8889 Celsius). Keep the heating pad on for at least 2 hours. Step 6. Take Pain Medication If Available. Lion fish stings will hurt for many hours after the initial wound. To combat the pain over the counter painkillers are recommended. An example of this is ibuprofen or Tylenol. Step 7. Apply Tropical Antibiotic Cream. Apply cream to the wounded site, then wrap the site in bandages. If swelling appears do not apply ice as it will intensify the pain. Step 8. Seek Medical Attention From A Doctor. Sometimes, a doctor is not needed for a lion fish sting. However you should seek medical attention to make sure that there are not complications. Infections are also possible so having a follow up check up on the wound is extremely encouraged. Directories / Credits https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/lionfish-facts.html https://www.localdivethailand.com/rare-finds/lionfish-a-smart-fish/ https://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/aquatic/fish-and-other-vertebrates/lionfish https://nsuworks.nova.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1498&context=occ_stuetd https://lionfish-hunting.com/lionfish-reproduction/ https://seaofchange.com/creature-feature-red-lionfish/ https://www.healthline.com/health/lionfish-sting#treatment https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32729212/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31534410/ https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2022.1085 https://journals.biologists.com/jeb/article/222/19/jeb214122/223524/Invasive-lionfish-have-turbocharged-digestive Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa ReplyForward

This article is a part of our second newsletter titled, The Persaud Catalogue Scientific Journal of Marine Biology. In this journal, we will publish information concerning the various marine flora & fauna of certain places. This newsletter, will publish sporadically, & not on a timed basis like The Persaud Catalog. This journal is in affiliation with The Persaud Catalog, however it is a separate entity. In todays article, we will catalog the various species of seagrass found in & around Terranea Cove. We will state the density of these species, the place where it was found the most, & a detailed description of the species. Please note, this was done with the correct permits, do not attempt to imitate this survey without being aware of the permits necessary to do it. On September 9th, we did a seagrass survey of Terranea Cove, Ranchos Palos Verdes. We attempted to take the coordinates of these specimens, as well as measured them. What we discovered, is that only 1 seagrass species inhabits the cove, that species being Macrocystis Pyfiera. It is important to know, that Terranea Cove has an extremely large surf, so attempting to find seaweed specimens is very difficult without the proper equipment, & knowledge. For our international readers, Ranchos Palos Verdes is a Peninsula in California, USA. For this reason, we do not advise anyone to attempt this. Terranea Cove is located next to the Terranea Resort, which is nearby the Saint Peters By-The-Sea Presbyterian Church. With that being said, let us delve into the seagrass species of Terranea Cove, Ranchos Palos Verdes. The Survey Results All specimens found in Terranea cove were found at approximately 7:30 PM, when the tide we near its highest point. Seagrass Species 1: Macrocystis Pyfiera (Giant Kelp / Bladder Kelp) It seems that there was only one species found in Terranea Cove. There were large matts of seaweed towards the right side of the cove, & slightly smaller matts at the mouth of the cave. Overall, the majority of the seagrass that should have washed up on shore, got tangled in massive matts on the righthand side of the cove, towards the cliffside. There were very few speciemens on shore, but luckily a pristine specimen was able to be found. Unfortunately we couldn’t properly get the coordinates of this specimen, as staying longer in the specific area could have caused issues for our field worker. Our specimen for this species was approximately 25 centimeters (9.84252 inches) long, & approximately 3 centimeters (1.1811 inches) wide. Unfortunately, in order to fit properly in the vial, we had to cut a portion of the specimen off. It was wide with small tendrils, & a half twist in the center of it. It took on a brownish color, with a strange leathery texture. This species usually grows in massive forests off the coast of Ranchos Palos Verdes. Unfortunately, these forests are being threatened by the Purple Sea Urchin, who has overpopulated Ranchos Palos Verdes. The Purple Sea Urchin likes to consume the giant kelp, & are able to devour forests of it. For this reason, there are many conservation efforts going on to protect the kelp forests of Ranchos Palos Verdes. Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa ReplyForward

This article is a part of our second newsletter titled, The Persaud Catalogue Scientific Journal of Marine Biology. In this journal, we will publish information concerning the various marine flora & fauna of certain places. This newsletter, will publish sporadically, & not on a timed basis like The Persaud Catalog. This journal is in affiliation with The Persaud Catalog, however it is a separate entity. In this article, we will state all of the most prominent species of Marine Flora in Ranchos Palos Verdes that were found. We will state the density of these species, the place where it was found the most, & a detailed description of the species. Please note, this was done with the correct permits, do not attempt to imitate this survey without being aware of the permits necessary to do so. Generously, 2 sponsors gave us the opportunity to study the seagrasses in Maiori, Italy, & Barceloneta, Spain. Unfortunately, in Barcelona, seagrass could not be easily accessed from the coastline, so we were unable to find any specimens of seagrass along the coast near Barceloneta Beach. Additionally, Seagrass does not grow very closely along the coastline in that particular area of Northern Spain. Though in Maiori, we were able to procure 2 small samples of Posidonia Oceanica. This was the only species that could be found along the Maiorian coast. To be clear, this is a survey that will only be conducted once, & not yearly like the Malibu survey’s that take place in May. This survey is a stand alone study. With that being said, let us delve into the seagrasses of Maiori. The Survey Results For Maiori, Italy, & Barceloneta, Spain Unfortunately, due to the fact that all of our samples were found underwater, we were unable to get the accurate coordinates of their origins. All samples were taken between 1:00 to 1:30 PM Central European Time. Seagrass Specimen 1: Posidonia Oceanica (Neptune Grass, Found In Maiori) The first & only seagrass species that we found, was Posidonia Oceanica. Our first specimen of this species measured approximately 4 inches long, & our second measured at 3 inches long. They were both broken off from a main plant when they were found. It is extremely rare to find this species along the coast, & it grows much further out at sea. The reason for this is, Maiori’s Coast is extremely rocky, & Posidonia Oceanica needs sand to grow properly. We found these samples in an intertidal zone, floating on a wave. This species has flat, long, dark green leaves which make it very identifiable. Surprisingly, we found no dried Neptune balls along the coast or anywhere nearby. Posidonia Oceanica usually grows in waters between 3.28084 & 114.829 feet deep. Since this species of seagrass is extremely slow growing, it could be anywhere from a few weeks to thousands of years old. Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

The Documented History Of The Italian Village Maiori, Italy Today’s article will discuss the history of Maiori, Italy. Maiori is a small town along the Amalfi coastline, in the province of Salerno. It is famous for its large lemon production, as well as its incredibly old chapels. It is an inexpensive resort town & has been since the roman times. 2 anonymous sponsors decided to graciously donate us money in order to go to Maiori & conduct various experiments. During the 5th of September, we will publish an article on the various experiments we conducted & research data we collected. These articles will be published under our newest newsletter, which is named “The Persaud Catalogue: Scientific Journal of Marine Biology”. This will be the first publication under that newsletter. Maiori is also wonderfully inexpensive so this makes it a day trip destination. It is also possible one of the best places to go marine-creature watching in the province of Salerno. It has a rich history that ties in to a twin town that is nearby, known as Minori. Maiori has the longest stretch of unbroken coastline along the entire Amalfi coast, which makes it a prime location for both coastal & marine life. Maiori is also famous for their delightful various scuba diving tours. The town currently has a bustling coastline in that many marine creatures will choose to live along it. Maiori has been a tourist town since the times when romans ruled Italy. Maiori has also served many functional purposes as a town since it became a recognized township. One of the main purposes it held is the production of lemons, which are used to make the staple alcoholic drink known as limoncello. Maiori has existed since at minimum 596 century A.D, meaning it has existed longer then the Mongul empire. That is the earliest proven record of Maiori, however some evidence suggests it may be older. The Mongul empire existed for approximately 162 years, while Maiori existed for at least 1,427 years, possibly longer. This means that Maiori has existed for approximately 9 times that of the Mongul empire. In this article, we will discuss the documented History of Maiori, the aboriginals of Maiori, the most destructive man-caused & natural disasters to ever effect Maiori, & finally the economic state of Maiori, Italy. With that being said, let us delve into the land of lemon trees. The Documented History Of The Italian Village Maiori, Italy As a disclaimer, extremely little is known about the history of Maiori. Before Colonization By The Unified Romans Maiori’s exact origins are unknown. The village was most likely founded by the Etruscans. It is also unknown when exactly when Maiori was founded, however it seems to have existed since the 1st century A.D. This has been seen in that a villa nearby was discovered nearby Maiori, this villa was found to date back to the 1st century. This was also evidence that Maiori was used as a tourist town by the Etruscans. Unfortunately the historical villa from the 1st century A.D no longer exists. They originally called Maiori either “Cossa” or “Bossa”. Also Maiori & Minori are the only 2 Etruscan settlement’s found in Campania. In the 3rd Century A.D, it was conquered by the Romans. They named Maiori “Rheginna Maior” & the neighbouring town of Minori “Rheginna Minor”. After Colonization By The Imperial Romans The 500’s One of Maiori’s earliest documentations after Roman invasion, is that of the Catholic Temple called “Santuario Santa Maria a Mare”. It is called the Sanctuary of Santa Maria in English. This Catholic temple was built in 596, it is still operational today. The 600’s It is unknown what happened during this century. The 700’s It is unknown what happened during this century. The 800’s Between the years of 830 & 840, the small Italian towns of Lettere, Tramonti, Cetera, & Positano as well as the isle of Capri, formed the Duchy of Amalfi (Republic of Amalfi). This Duchy functioned as an independent state even though it officially was not one. Each city retained their own personal autonomy & their names. When Maiori was united into this, it became the head of the republics admiralty, the head of the customs in the republic, & the lead city in the salt market. Even after the Amalfian Republic fell, Maiori remained a major port & their shipyards still remained in active operation. The 900’s It is unknown what happened in this century. The 1000’s During the beginning of the century, the Duchy of Amalfi was incorporated into the Kingdom of Naples. The Events Of 1100’s There were no major events that took place in Maiori during this century. The Events Of 1200’s There were no major events that took place in Maiori during this century. The Events Of 1300’s There was a violent tsunami during the year of 1343. There was also a plague in Maiori in the same year, as well as many pirate sieges, & horrible floods. This caused Maiori to fall into a decline. The Events Of 1400’s There were no major events that took place in Maiori during this century. The Events Of 1500’s There were no major events that took place in Maiori during this century. The Events Of 1600’s There were no major events that took place in Maiori during this century. The Events Of 1700’s There were no major events that took place in Maiori during this century. The Events Of 1800’s It remained incorporated in Kingdom of Naples until the completion of Italian unification in the year 1871. The Events Of 1900’s From the 1946 to 1954 Maiori appeared in multiple romance films made by the famed Italian film maker Roberto Gastone Zeffiro Rossellini. The Aboriginals Of Maiori, Italy The Etruscans Of Etruria The origins of the Etruscans has been widely debated. It is unclear whether or not they were indigenous to Italy or if they were migrants from modern day Turkey. For this reason, we cannot say that they were the first people in Maiori. They did build a civilization in central Italy, but they only built / found Maiori much later in their civilization. Also, the Campanian’s could have built Maiori & then abandoned it. The Campanians were significantly closer so this is a possibility. Generally, it is unknown who were the original inhabitants of Maiori of not. The Most Destructive Man-Caused & Natural Disasters To Affect Maiori, Italy No. 1: The Vietri-Maiori Landslide Of 1954 On the 25th of October 1954, a massive storm hit the village of Vietri sul Mare & Maiori. This storm caused 300 deaths in total. It also caused major landslides, which temporarily wrecked the economy of both towns, as well as destroying many historical sites. It destroyed many homes as well, which temporarily displaced many Maioriese residents. Since the majority of Maiori at this point was built upon a hill, the storm caused more damage then it should have. This landslide was the main cause for Maiori not having as many historical buildings as Minori. It also caused major soil erosion & other issues with soil fertility, so it the agricultural sector of Maiori temporarily became screwed up. The Economic State Of Maiori, Italy Maiori’s economy is growing steadily, yet slowly. Maiori exports many lemons so that is their main crop in the agricultural sector. They also receive fair share of tourism, for both their historical value & their beautiful beach. It has also been shown in many different films so this adds to their popularity. This also helps make the town seem more appealing, especially since it has been shown in romance films. The town holds a film festival in November each year, in which the Premio Internazionale Roberto Rossellini is rewarded. This festival helps to attract lots of tourism, which turn gives the commune an economic boost. Maiori uses the European Euro, the same as the rest of Italy. Directories / Credits //www.summerinitaly.com › m...Maiori - Towns in Amalfi Coast https://www.italyheritage.com/regions/campania/salerno/maiori.htm Francesco Fiorillo, Luigi Guerriero, Lello Capobianco, Mauro Pagnozzi, Paola Revellino, Filippo Russo & Francesco M. Guadagno (2019) Inventory of Vietri-Maiori landslides induced by the storm of October 1954 (southern Italy), Journal of Maps, 15:2, 530-537, DOI: 10.1080/17445647.2019.1626777 https://costieraamalfitana.com/en/town/maiori/ Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa

Today’s article is a part of a special collection, known as the Marine Hall Of Fame. Recently we have decided to publish the collection as the Marine Biological Hall Of Distinction. It is the exact same collection, however it is just under a separate name. In this special collection we will discuss marine biologists who we feel have served marine biology & oceanography the most. We do this in order to commemorate these marine biologists & to show gratitude for everything they have contributed to our oceans. This collection has no relation to the main months series. This series publishes on the 25th of every month, shortly after our article on the oceanic environment of a certain region on the 20th. Today’s marine biologist, is Anton Frederik Bruun, a noble Danish oceanographer. Anton Frederik Bruun was a Danish oceanographer & ichthyologist, who served as a chairman for the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission. Anton Frederik Bruun is best known for his work with various fish species, as well as his work in the beginning stages of the Cold War. He was one of the most prominent figures who helped the American government to strengthen their their submarine capabilities. He wrote three books, the first of which is titled “The Biology Spirula Spirula L.”, & the second of which is titled “The Galathea Deep Sea Expedition”, & the last of which is titled “The Bruun Memorial Lectures”. He unfortunately, wrote no autobiography, so very little is known about his early personal life. In this article, we will discuss his Early Personal Life & Education, his Later Personal life & Career. & his Accomplishments, Honorables, Achievements, & Awards. With that being said, let us delve into the life of Mr. Anton Frederik Bruun. The Early Personal Life & Education Of Anton Frederik Bruun Bruun was born on the 14th of December, 1901, in Jelling, Denmark. He was born to a Farmer. He most likely was not raised in any religion, as later in life he would be described to be very anti-religious. He was unfortunately, disabled for a large portion of his childhood due to polio. Aside from this, very little is known about his early personal life. The Later Personal Life & Career Of Anton Frederik Bruun Anton Frederik Bruun attended University Of Copenhagen. His major was Zoology, & it is unclear if he has any minors. After this it is unclear if he got another degree. In 1927, he became an assistant to his Professor Schmidt in his department for the Danish Commission For The Exploration Of The Sea. He would continue working here until the death of Professor Schmidt, which was after the Dana Voyages. His friends would describe him as a charming man, who has no trouble making friends. Under the guidance of his Professor Schmidt, he participated from 1928 to 1930 in doing expeditions with the research vessel “Dana”. He would go on to do a few sporadic cruises on the Dana to Iceland & the Faroe Islands. In 1938 he became assistant curator of the Zoology Museum Of The University Of Copenhagen. Soon after in 1945, he was appointed leader an expedition in West Africa on the yacht “Atlantide”. He continued this expedition until 1946. From 1948 to 1949, he went on a lecture circuit around the United States of America, & New Zealand. Starting in 1950, he began the famed Galathea expedition, which he was the leading ichthyologist on. He would continue on this voyage until 1952, & he would later go on to write a book detailing his experiences on this voyage. He may or may not have been multilingual, which would helped him on this voyage & various other endeavours, but this is not confirmed. During the expedition, he published an oceanographic survey titled “The Philippine Trench & its Bottom Fauna”. In 1957, he became the Senior Lecturer in Oceanography at the Zoology Museum at the University of Copenhagen. He would go on to work in there his death. Due to his contributions in oceanography & ichthyology, he was elected secretary of the International Union Of Biological Sciences. Over the course of his life, he published many scientific articles, the topics ranging from flying fish to icelandic cephalopods. Unfortunately, we could not get the dates for which these various articles were published. On one of his voyages in east Asian waters, he unfortunately caught an illness, which would utterly destroy his health, & cause him to have an early death. In 1961, he was elected President of the International Commission For Oceanography. Unfortunately, On December 23rd 1961, he would pass away from his illness. His impacts on the field of oceanography are immeasurable, & continue to be extremely impactful to this day. His obituary is linked below. https://watermark.silverchair.com/27-2-121.pdf? Anton Frederik Bruun’s Accomplishments, Honorables, Achievements, & Awards He Authored “The Biology Of Spirula Spirula”. He Authored “The Galathea Deep Sea Expedition, 1950-1952, Described By Members Of The Expedition”, based on the second Galathea Expedition, which circumnavigated the globe. He posthumously authored “The Bruun Memorial Lectures”. He had the award “Anton Frederik Bruun Award”, named after him. It is gifted by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission. This award is gifted every second year, at their biannual assembly. He was gifted the Alexander Agassiz Award, which is gifted by the National Academy of Sciences. He was the leading ichthyologist on the second Galathea Expedition. Directories / Credits Citation No. 1: “Shellers From the Past & the Present” Written by Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by Conchology Incorporated. Retrieval Date: July 22nd, 2023. https://www.conchology.be/?t=9001&id=13846 Citation No. 2: “Dr. Anton F. Bruun (1901-1961)” Written By Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published By the Harte Research Institute for Gulf of Mexico Studies. Retrieval Date: July 22nd, 2023. https://www.gulfbase.org/people/dr-anton-f-bruun-1901-1961 Citation No. 3: “Intelligence & Internationalism: The Cold War Career of Anton Bruun”: Written by Peder Roberts, Published on July 10th of 2013. Published by John Wiley & Sons Incorporated. Retrieval Date: July 22nd, 2023. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/1600-0498.12021 Citation No. 4: “Oceanographic Exonumia: Dr. Anton Frederik Brunn & the Alexander Agassiz Award” Written by Jeremy Bostwick, & Published on January 28th of 2021. Published by Stacks Bowers Numismatics LLC. Retrieval Date: July 22nd, 2023. https://stacksbowers.com/anton-bruun-alexander-agassiz-award-stacks-bowers-galleries/ Citation No. 5: “The Biology of Spirula Spirula L.” Written by Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by the Smithsonian. Retrieval Date: July 22nd, 2023. https://www.si.edu/object/siris_sil_95122 Citation No. 6: “Anton Frederik Bruun 14. December 1901—13. December 1961” Written By R. Spärck, Published at an Unknown Date. Published by the Ices Journal Of Marine Science. Retrieval Date: July 22nd, 2023. https://watermark.silverchair.com/27-2-121.pdf? Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

The Oceans Surrounding The Italian Village Of Maiori Today’s article shall discuss the oceans surrounding the town of Maiori, Italy. Maiori is a small town along the Amalfi coastline, in the province of Salerno. It is famous for its large lemon production, as well as its incredibly old chapels. It is an inexpensive resort town & has been since the roman times. 2 anonymous sponsors decided to graciously donate us money in order to go to Maiori & conduct various experiments. During the 5th of September, we will publish an article on the various experiments we conducted & research data we collected. These articles will be published under our newest newsletter, which is named “The Persaud Catalogue: Scientific Journal of Marine Biology”. This will be the first publication under that newsletter. Maiori is also wonderfully inexpensive so this makes it a day trip destination. It is also possible one of the best places to go marine-creature watching in the province of Salerno. It has a rich history that ties in to a twin town that is nearby, known as Minori. Maiori has the longest stretch of unbroken coastline along the entire Amalfi coast, which makes it a prime location for both coastal & marine life. Maiori is also famous for their delightful various scuba diving tours. The town currently has a bustling coastline in that many marine creatures will choose to live along it. Maiori is located along the Mediterranean sea as well, which means it may have some endemic marine Flora & Fauna. Since it is in the Mediterranean, this also unfortunately means that it will have a higher oceanic population rate then say outside of the Mediterranean. Thankfully, Maiori beach is a very clean beach & litter is not very commonly found there. Maiori is also not a port, so this helps to lower the pollution rate. Maiori somewhat very safe for swimmers, the only unsafe factor is the unfortunate jellyfish invasion. Currently, there is an invasion of Rhizostoma Pulmo (Frilly-Mouthed Jellyfish) along Maiori Beach. They reproduce very quickly so it is incredibly difficult to eradicate them. Our previous article published on the 10th of this month discussed this jellyfish in it’s entirety. If you would like to learn more about that jellyfish & what to do in the case it stings you, please use our navigational feature located at the top of our website to find it. It is titled “The Frilly-Mouthed Jellyfish Of Maiori, Italy”. In this article we will discuss the salinity, tides, temperatures, marine geography, & basic information of the oceans surrounding Maiori, the most prominent ecosystems of the oceans surrounding Maiori, the documented marine flora & fauna of Maiori, & finally, How the oceanic resources of Maiori have been utilized & how it had effected the oceanic environment. With that being said, let us delve into the oceans surrounding the town of lemons. The Salinity, Tides, Temperatures, Marine Geography, & Basic Information Of The Oceans Surrounding Maiori Since Maiori is located in the Mediterranean Sea, it would have a higher salinity then say in the Indian Ocean. This is mainly due to the Atlantic being the ocean filtering into the Mediterranean. The Atlantic is the ocean with the highest salinity as of 2023. The actual salinity of Maiori has not been measured officially. Salt deposits / Brine Pools may be more common around the island due to the higher salinity. They are most certainly salt deposits around the town as it has the salinity of the Mediterranean is extremely high. The salinity levels of the Mediterranean sea at any given time are between 38 parts per thousand & 40 parts per thousand. Salinity is measured in 1,000 grams of water. For every 1000 grams of water there will be a certain number of grams that are pure salt. This is how salinity or saline level is measured. There are also no on going factors that would lead the salinity level being altered. Additionally, there are no salt-water rivers nearby. The tide charts for Maiori can be found on a multitude of websites, however these sites are the easiest to navigate: https://www.tide-forecast.com , https://www.tidetime.org , https://www.tideschart.com , & finally https://surf-reports.com . The tide seems to never reach over 1.24 meters (4.068241 feet). Maiori beaches do not have riptides of any kind, meaning that it is safe for swimmers. The oceanic temperature of Maiori beach is also found on a plethora of websites, however the easiest to navigate is https://seatemperature.net . The average annual oceanic temperature of Maiori Beach is 66° Fahrenheit (18.8889° Celsius). beach is generally safe for swimmers, however there is a jellyfish invasion, the jellyfish species is Rhizostoma Pulmo. This makes it dangerous as this jellyfish can & will sting you if provoked. They are rather large & easy to spot so this makes the chance of being stung less. The pollution rate is minimal as Maiori is not as high in tourism as say Naples or Rome. Also, littering is considered a taboo in Maiori so oftentimes people will not litter. The deepest oceanic point within 5 Nautical / Marine miles (5.7539 miles or 9.26 kilometers) of Maiori is 2,343.5 feet (714.2988 meters) deep. There is only 1 beach in Maiori, & that is Maiori Beach. Maiori beach is the largest beach in the Amalfi coast & it is currently the longest piece of unbroken coastline along the Amalfi coast. There are no oceanic mounds close by Maiori & the oceanic floor that is not along the coast is very flat aside from small rock formations. Maiori’s ocean floor is mainly composed of rock & compressed sand. There is coral along the coast however it is sparse throughout this area. As of 2023 there are no known marine protected areas that are in or close by Maiori. The Most Prominent Marine Ecosystems Of The Oceans Surrounding Maiori Seagrass Meadows Seagrass meadows are semi-common along the Maiori Coastline. The most common seagrass species around the coastline of Maiori is Posidonia Oceanica. It is endemic to the Mediterranean. Seagrass meadows usually serve as a fish nursery, a hunting ground, & as shelter. More shall be discussed about Posidonia Oceanica in the section below titled “The Documented Marine Flora Of Maiori, Italy” Seagrass meadows are most commonly found along the coastline, however they can be found most anywhere. Most creatures that are found in this area are small & migratory. These types ecosystems in abundance in Maiori, Italy. Tidal / Coastal Areas Tidal areas are the areas closest to the coastline, of the beaches. These areas will usually hold rock pools in which small crustaceans will live. Oftentimes, there will not be very many life forms along the beach. Creatures such as crabs or molluscs may be found either on the beach or in small rock formations on the beach. These areas are constantly changing as in these areas waves will disrupt the ecosystem. The ecosystem also depends on whether it is high or low tide. Often, if it is high tide then more species will be entering & exiting the ecosystem. If it is low tide then more species will be staying in one area in the ecosystem. Fringing Coral Reefs There aren’t exactly proven to be coral reefs specifically along Maiori. In the nearby town of Torrel de Greco, coral is found in abundance. However Torrel del Greco is 41.2 kilometers away. The existence of coral reefs in Maiori has yet to be proven or disproven. The Most Prominent Documented Marine Flora Of Maiori, Italy The extent of the oceanic flora is very limited in Maiori. The only documented species of seagrass in Maiori is Posidonia Oceanica (Neptune Grass / Mediterranean Tapeweed). Posidonia Oceanica is a species of seagrass endemic to the Mediterranean. This species of seagrass will produce a fruit that often washes up on Maiori beaches. This fruit is often known as the “Olive of the Sea”. They usually will only grow in large patches, & it is rare to find a small patch of this species. Their fruits are also known as Neptune balls & will often wash up along the coastline. They often plague the beaches & make for a strange sight to see. This species is undoubtedly the most important one to not only Maiori, but to Italy as a whole. The interesting thing about this species is that it is able to absorb carbon dioxide in huge droves. This species is able to soak up 15 more times carbon dioxide then a similar sized piece of the Amazon Rainforest in South America. Their fruits are also important as they are basically just dense balls of dead Neptune grass leaves. These dense balls are able to trap plastics within them & then carry these plastics to the shoreline where people are able to discard of them. These species is not threatened with extinction as of 2023. Posidonia Oceanica is usually bright green, however it may turn brown as it ages. It usually grows between 7.87402 inches (20.0000108 centimeters) & 15.748 inches (39.99992 centimeters) tall. It also grows usually to be 10 millimeters (0.393701 inches or 1 centimeter) wide. Other then this species, there are practically no other seagrass species found along the coastline of Maiori. The Most Prominent Documented Marine Fauna Of Maiori, Italy Maiori has an eclectic array of oceanic species, mainly due to its position in the Mediterranean. Marine fauna are extremely attracted to west Italy due to its propitious location. Not only that, but this region has an extremely high density of seagrass. This high volume of seagrass means that most marine herbivores have an abundance of food. This in turn attracts many marine herbivores. Also Maiori has an extremely low pollution rate so this provides a clean oceanic environment. Additionally, littering is extremely looked down upon in Italy, so much so that if one is caught littering they may be fined between 30€ & 150€. This high fine discourages most people from littering, which keeps the oceanic environment & coastal environment clean. Also, it is important to note that most creatures are not found here full time, & will often migrate throughout Italian waters or the Mediterranean. They will often do this seasonally or annually for either feeding purposes or birthing purposes. This makes it so that seasonally, some ecosystems will not have many creatures as it should. There are no known endemic species to specifically Maiori, Italy. For the purposes of this article I will not be including wading birds, such as flamingos which are found in Maiori, Italy. We will also not be including micro-organisms or tunicates. Also, for clarification purposes, these are all creatures found within 10 nautical miles (11.5078 miles or 18.52 kilometers) from Maiori, Italy. With that being said, the following is a list of the most prominent marine species found around Maiori, Campania, Italy: Rhizostoma Pulmo (Frilly Mouthed Jellyfish), Balaenoptera Physalus (Fin Whale), Ziphius Cavirostris (Cuiver’s Beaked Whale), Physeter Macroephalus (Sperm Whale), Globiphala Melas (Long-finned pilot whale), Pseudorca Crassidens (False Killer whale), Grampus Griseus (Risso’s dolphin), Steno Bredanensis (Rough-toothed dolphin), Tursoips Truncatus (Common Bottle-nosed dolphin), Stenella Coeruleoalba (Striped dolphin), Delphinus Delphis (Short-Beaked common dolphin), Orcinus Orca (Orca / Killer Whale), Muraena Helena (Mediterranean Moray Eel), Anguilla Anguilla (European Eel), Gobius Fallax (Sarato’s Goby), Gobius Cruentatus (Red-mouthed Goby), Gobius Cobitis (Giant Goby), Gobius Incognitus (Incognito Goby), Diphodus Annularis (Annualar Seabream), Diphodus Vulgaris (Common Two-banded sea-bream), Lichia Amia (Leerfish), Chromis Chromis (Mediterranean Damselfish), Parablennius Pilicornis (Ringneck Blenny), Tripterygion Tripteronotum (Red-black triplefin), Thalassoma Pavo (Ornate Wrasse), Coris Julius (Mediterranean Rainbow Wrasse), Symphodus Cinereus (Grey wrasse), Symphodus Tinca (East Atlantic Peacock Wrasse), Serranus Scriba (Painted Comber), Serranus Cambrilla (Comber), & finally Scorpaena Porcus (Black Scorpionfish). How The Oceanic Resources Of Maiori Have Been Utilized & How It Has Effected The Oceanic Environment The most common way the oceanic resources of Maiori have been utilized is through fishing & tourism. Maiori has an abundance of fish so it is a hotspot for mainly non-commercial fishing. This effects the populations of various fish species. This also could cause various food chain issues, which could result in an environmental crisis similar to the crown of thorns crisis on the island of Tutuila, American Samoa. Oftentimes, tourists will also use the beaches for their various purposes. This however, doesn’t necessarily damage the marine environment. There is also a port located in the Maiori Harbour, so this causes boat fuels to be released into the water. This makes the water become toxic to the fish & then the fish will die if to much boat run-off is released. Directories / Credits https://www.britannica.com/place/Mediterranean-Sea/Hydrologic-features-and-climate https://www.kew.org/plants/neptune-grass#:~:text=Neptune%20grass%20forms%20larges%20undersea,m%20long%20and%2010mm%20wide. https://www.inaturalist.org/check_lists/10954-Campania-Check-List?page=4 Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa