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The Oceans Surrounding The Nevisian Island Of Nevis Today's article will discuss the oceans surrounding the island of Saint Nevis. Saint Nevis is an island that exists in the Caribbean. It is a part of the country known as Saint Kitts & Nevis. Nevis is the smaller of the 2 islands that are from the country of Saint Kitts & Nevis. It is a part of the lesser Antilles. It is a part of the archipelago group known as the Leeward Islands. Saint Nevis is approximately 383.31 Nautical / Marine miles from its closest point to mainland South America, specifically the country of Venezuela. It is also approximately 1128.85 Nautical / Marine Miles from the State of Florida, United States Of America.  The ocean that surrounds Saint Nevis is the Atlantic. It rests in the Caribbean Sea. The island is in the vague shape of a circle, which is incredibly uncommon. The island is well known for its beautiful beaches & high amount of exotic marine life. The island is extremely marine biodiverse due to its placement in Venezuela. You see, it is far enough away that Venezuelan vicious creatures such as caiman cannot swim up the coast easily.  This makes it a sort of haven for certain species to escape. This also means that water from the Orinoco River doesn’t disperse near the island. The water from the Orinoco is a murky brown, which is a stark contrast to the clear blue water of the Caribbean Sea. When water from the Orinoco disperses in the Caribbean Sea, it causes the water to become murky, the best example of this is seen in southern Trinidad. Because Saint Nevis is so far away from Venezuela, their beaches remain a clear crystal blue. Saint Nevis is also a hot spot for coral reefs & large seagrass meadows. A reason for this is the attractive climate which doesn’t fluctuate. You see, in most other areas of the world, there are seasons where the water becomes colder & animals migrate away. However, in the Caribbean, this season is virtually nonexistent. This stable climate makes it so that finding food & nutrients in certain seasons isn’t difficult. It also makes it so that the coral itself can survive. Saint Nevis also doesn’t support many people meaning its natural resources haven’t been depleted yet. It also means that Saint Nevis is not very polluted. Oftentimes, places will become polluted as a result of a large population or a large tourist population. Saint Nevis has neither of these. In this article, we will discuss the salinity, temperature, marine geography & terrain, the most important marine ecosystems, the documented marine flora & fauna, & the utilization of marine resources of Saint Nevis. With that being said, let us delve into the blissful isle of Saint Nevis. The Salinity, Temperature, Tides, Basic Information, & Marine Geography Of Nevis The actual salinity level of Saint Nevis has not been released to the public domain as of 2024. Since the island is in the Atlantic, it will most likely have a higher salinity than say the Pacific Ocean or the Indian Ocean. Salt deposits / Brine Pools may be more common around the island due to the higher salinity. However, the existence of brine pools around the island has not been proven. The salinity levels of the Atlantic Ocean at any given time are between 35.5 & 34.5 parts per thousand. Salinity is measured in 1,000 grams of water. For every 1000 grams of water, there will be a certain number of grams that are pure salt. This is how salinity or saline level is measured. There are also no ongoing factors that would lead to the salinity level being altered. The oceanic temperature of Saint Nevis can be found on a plethora of websites. The most user-friendly websites that have information about the oceanic temperature of Saint Nevis are the following: https://seatemperature.net , Sea Temperature Infohttps:// seatemperature.info , Weather and Climatehttps:// weather-and-climate.com , & finally Weather.plushttps:// weather.plus . The tides of Saint Nevis can also be found there. The tides of Saint Nevis usually never get over 1.4 meters (4.59318 feet). This is due to the strange placement of Saint Nevis & the nearby wave patterns. The deepest oceanic point within 5 Nautical / Marine miles (5.7539 miles or 9.26 kilometers) from Saint Nevis is 1988.2 feet (606.00336 meters) deep.  There are no randomly forming currents around the island & there are no seasonal or permanent currents within 5 Nautical / Marine miles (5.7539 miles or 9.26 kilometers) of the island. There is no known record of riptide dangerous enough to injure a person around Saint Nevis. Pollution around Saint Nevis is controlled. There is not much water pollution around the island. There are also no records of hazardous chemical contamination of the water around Saint Nevis. Swimming is a safe & common recreational activity around Saint Nevis. Snorkeling & scuba diving are also incredibly common recreational activities that take place around the island. As mentioned in the introduction, water is crystal clear & coral reefs can be seen from the beaches on the island. Some of the oceanic areas do run off into the island creating saltwater streams on the island. There are a total of 3 marine protected areas or MPAs throughout Saint Kitts & Nevis. The marine protected areas are currently known as; Marine Management Area, Sandy Point Reef, & Sandy Point Reef. There are 2 marine protected areas known as Sandy Point Reef around Saint Kitts & Nevis. The Most Prominent Marine Ecosystems Of Nevis Coral Reefed Areas Coral reefs both large & small are incredibly common around Nevis. The only type of coral reef found around Nevis is the Fringing type. There are four main types of coral reefs Fringing, Patch reefs, Barrier, & Atolls. There are currently 44 designated reefs throughout Saint Kitts & Nevis. These 44 areas comprise approximately 204.248 square miles (529 square kilometers) of ocean. The exact species found around Nevis are known as Acropora palmata (Elkhorn coral) & Acropora cervicornis (Staghorn coral). The Staghorn coral is a cold water coral, which means that cold water coral is in confirmed presence around Nevis. Seagrass Meadows There is no specific place where these types of ecosystems are found, this type of ecosystem is incredibly versatile. Many different types of vertebrates & invertebrates are found here. Usually, smaller animals are found here, which makes this ecosystem extremely fragile. Usually, this is an area where animals such as sea horses give birth. It consists mostly of seagrass. It also works as a fish nursery for the majority of the fish. The main species of seagrasses around Nevis are Thalassia testudinum (turtle grass),& Syringodium filiform (filament grass). Between the two, filament grass is found more frequently than turtle grass. Turtle grass is found as deep as 10 meters (32.8084 feet). Filament grass, however, makes up the majority of the deeper seagrass meadows. This is what makes filament grass more prominent. Syringodium Filiform is found as deep as 30 meters (98.4252 feet), this seagrass is usually found further off the coast rather than the other species. Seagrass meadows are also usually found near mangrove forests or are found embellishing coral reefs. Mangrove Forests Mangrove forests are areas where the trees & the ocean connect. This creates a unique ecosystem in which there is shallow brackish water, & lots of roots. The tree roots make a sort of underwater labyrinth for the fish & other creatures to enjoy. Mangrove forests are usually found further inland than mangrove coasts. The ocean usually runs off into these areas. Mangrove forests are especially unique because they have excessive nutrients. This is due to the meeting of the forest organisms & the oceanic organisms. The exact species of these mangrove trees have currently not been released to the public domain. These mangrove forests may be alleged or very small in size as they do not show up on the majority of maps. It is extremely difficult to figure out where exactly these mangroves are located. The Documented Marine Flora Of Nevis The documented marine flora of Saint Kitts & Nevis are relatively common, however they are found in abundance. The main species of seagrasses around Nevis are Thalassia testudinum (turtle grass),& Syringodium filiform (filament grass). These are the only known species of seagrasses found around Nevis. The vast majority of seagrass meadows are found to the North of the island & the Northwest. There is 1 large seagrass patch to the south. There are no large seagrass patches to the east of the island. Algae from the genus Sargassum frequently wash up along the shores of Nevis. Sargassum is a genus of brown macroalgae that grows in large clumps around the Caribbean. There are very few other algae species found around Nevis. The Documented Marine Fauna Of Nevis Many different species of marine fauna are found around Nevis. The vast majority of these creatures do not live here year-round & only are found seasonally. However, a good majority of the creatures aren’t seasonal. Many creatures also come for shelter, food & large amounts of nutrients. This is a very appealing thing to most animals, especially the ones coming from the far Pacific. However, there are other contributing factors to the biodiversity of Nevis. The best places to see these marine creatures that we speak of are in the areas with coral reefs. The reason for that is due to the majority of the creatures hunting in the coral reefs or living in the coral reefs. Nowadays, oftentimes there is very little pollution or contamination of the oceanic water. A list of the most prominent species of marine creatures is as follows: Hippocampus Guttulatus (long-snout seahorse), Eretmochchelys Imbricata (Hawksbill turtle), Caretta Caretta (Loggerhead turtle), Chelonia Mydas (Green turtle), Dermochelys Coriacea (Leatherback Turtle), Megaptera Novaeangliae (Humpback whale), Physeter Macrocephalus (sperm whale), Panulirus Argus (spiny Caribbean lobster), & finally Stenella Attenuata (Pantropical Spotted Dolphin). There are too many tropical fish species to name. There are a total of 450 recorded species of tropical fish found around Nevis. How The Marine Resources Of Nevis Were Utilized & How That Affected The Environment The majority of the marine resources of Nevis have been left alone. The seagrasses & warm water corals of Nevis are in abundance. Frequently commercial fishing & fishing for private use happen in Nevisian waters. This affects the environment by causing population depletion. However, humans are affecting the marine environment in another way as well. You see, ocean acidification is causing the coral to slowly bleach around the Caribbean. Ocean acidification is caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.  Atmospheric carbon dioxide levels have increased, largely because of human-caused burning of fossil fuels, and deforestation, for the past 150 years.  When carbon dioxide contacts sea water, it forms carbonic acid.  Carbonic acid gives off positive H+ ions, which causes increased oceanic H+ concentrations and decreased oceanic Ph. Due to tourism in Nevis being popular, there are a lot of carbon emissions. Tourism is also common on the nearby island of Saint Kitts. Since the year 2000 coral has slowly disappeared throughout the Caribbean. However, there is a way of slowing this process. The way to do that is to prevent carbon dioxide levels from rising so rapidly. A good way to do this is to plant more kelp throughout the ocean. Directories / Credits https://mpatlas.org/countries/KN https://www.agrra.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/SKN-Report-Card_2016_WebLowRes.pdf https://chm.cbd.int/api/v2013/documents/C0A7116F-F642-2089-08C4-81605C16F1BC/attachments/208600/St.%20Kitts%20and%20Nevis%20Country%20Biodiversity%20Profile%20.pdf https://habitats.oceanplus.org/saint-kitts-and-nevis Welcome to St. Kitts and Nevis - Living Oceans Foundation Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa

Ode To Oceanography: An Antique Nautical Chart Of The Bay Of Biscay  This article is the tenth installment in the Ode To Oceanography series. This series will publish on the 15th of every month, until we run out of antique nautical maps to analyze, though that will not be for many decades. Once that happens, we will keep the series running, but we will change the article format. In these articles, will take an antique nautical map & analyze it in its entirety. These maps will not strictly be on open oceanic waters, they may be on rivers or occasionally, bays. We will also discuss the methods that may have been used to make the map, considering the period, & the country of origin. These maps will come from a variety of sources, though they will mainly come from Maps Of Antiquity, a wonderful New England map shop. These maps will come from varying periods, & will not be in any particular historical order. Today’s Map up for Analysis is an antique map of the Bay Of Biscay, Between the United Kingdom, France, Ireland, Spain, The Faroe Islands, & The Orkney Islands. The map is in fair condition, but there is a lot of moisture-curdling damage towards the center of the map. Though this does slightly degrade the overall quality of the map, everything is still perfectly legible.  In this article, we will discuss the map itself & the translation of certain sections of the map, & a surface-level analysis of this antique nautical map. With that being said, let us delve into the Bay Of Biscay.  The Map Itself Since the map is in English, there is no need for translation as this is the English Version of our newsletter.  A Surface Level Analysis Of The Map This map was made in the year 1879, by Wilson & John William Norie, who were British cartographers. This map was found by Maps of Antiquity, a lovely New England map shop. This map was most likely made in Britain, as that is where John William Norie’s maps were primarily made. The map covers approximately 1,150 nautical miles (2129.8 kilometers, or 1323.396 miles), though this measurement is rough. The map is extremely accurate, & very few islands are left off of it. As far as we are aware, this map is not a part of a certain collection. This map does not display most topographical features. The map is currently uncolored, & it is most likely made uncolored. It was not made, or used for militaristic purposes as far as we can tell. The map does not seem to be centered on any country, or port. No coves, ports, or beaches are labeled on this map, as it is a small-scale map. This map was most certainly made using lithography, due to the timing, & the way that the map looks. Lithography became popular in the early 1800s, & commercial lithography in 1820, so the timing for the map to be made using this method aligns. Additionally, there are extremely few other methods that it would have been made with, as lithography was the cheapest & fastest way to produce maps at the time. In the lithographic method, the artist will draw directly onto a printing surface, such as zinc, or copper, until they are satisfied with the drawing. After this, the surface will be covered with a chemical etch, which will bond it to the surface. With this process, the blank areas will attract moisture to the plate & repel the lithographic ink, while the areas that are drawn on will hold the ink. Water is then wiped onto the unpainted areas to help prevent the ink from deviating. After the map wanted is inked, the paper is laid over it & covered with a tympan, & the tympan is pressed down. Finally, these materials pass through the scraper bar of the litho press. Afterward, an exact copy of whatever was supposed to be printed is revealed. Directories / Credits All credit for this map analyzed today goes to Maps Of Antiquity, a wonderful New England map shop. To purchase this map, any other maps, or any other cartographic objects, please visit mapsofantiquity.com . To be clear, this is not an advertisement for Maps Of Antiquity, as we do not have a partnership with them. Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

An Interview With Marine Biology Author TheSirenLord Today’s article is an incredibly special one, as it contains an interview with a fantasy & marine biology author, as well as artist, The Siren Lord. The Siren Lord is a popular marine artist as well as marine biology author, who has been publishing drawings since 2017. He specializes in Trilobites, & has a deep passion & fascination with the order Trilobita. On April 13th, 2024, Our head writer interviewed The Siren Lord. We asked him approximately 19 questions, for which he gave very interesting & insightful answers. In this article, we will be discussing our Interview with The Siren Lord. With that being said, let us delve into the work of The Siren Lord. The Contents Of The Interview The Siren Lord’s passion for marine biology & paleontology was sparked as a child when his mother would bring him to the Mississippi Museum of Natural Science to see their terrestrial exhibits, & the gorgeous aquariums. These aquariums were both freshwater & saltwater, & this fascinated the young Siren Lord. This gave him an appreciation for living animal groups, & a fascination with marine life, especially trilobites. Modernly, he is most interested in Bony Fish, Trilobites, & Crustaceans. He has a special appreciation for the evolution of Marine Life, & spends much of his time researching the topic. The Order Trilobita is a major point of interest for him, as he is currently working on a book duo-logy on the subject. His fascination stems from the sheer diversity of the order, & how they have filled practically every biological niche a marine invertebrate can have. Although he doesn’t collect the fossils of Trilobites currently, he wishes to begin collecting them. As a young man, he began his journey in writing when he read fantasy novels from series such as the Narnia Series by CS Lewis, & J. R. R. Tolkien's Lord of the Ring novels. This gave him an appreciation for fantasy novels, & would eventually lead to him beginning his own Fantasy Trilogy, the Sage of Mirria. It also led to him beginning his own Web Comic series. His first series of illustrations about trilobites was an experiment, & something he found that he enjoyed. Since then, he has published approximately 48 portraits, & drawn 372 individual trilobites. He enjoys doing both black & white, & colored portraits of them. He has done many portraits of cephalopods as well, with an ongoing series of illustrations about them. His creative process involves physically drawing something in line art, scanning it & adding color digitally. Although he primarily does drawing, he has experimented with oil painting, sculpting, & watercolors. The Siren Lord began his webcomic series on November 24th, 2022. It publishes a new page almost every weekday, & maintains a very consistent schedule. Prior to publishing the first book, he wrote the entire overarching plot, background, & the both of the other books in the trilogy. As of 2024, he is working on his Trilobite Duology. He has already begun working on the first book, & is making steady progress. The first book is to discuss the evolution & biology of the group, as well as their impact on humans.  He intends to make the book 300 to 600 pages. The second book will be a field guide about each genus in the Trilobita class, with comprehensive illustrations. As a final note, he wishes to say “If you're an artist always believe in yourself, while others may never believe in you without self-confidence you'll never make it far. Also don't be afraid to practice a lot. I do so.”. For all of those interested in his books, & webcomic, we have attached the links to those below. Directories / Credits The Siren Lord, https://www.barnesandnoble.com/w/saga-of-mirria-sylvian-macourek/1144133299?ean=9798856344003 , https://www.deviantart.com/thesirenlord . Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

The Caribbean Reef Octopus Of Nevis, Saint Kitts & Nevis (Octopus Briareus) This month's article series will discuss... The Antillean Isle of Nevis! Nevis is an island that exists in the Caribbean. It is a part of the country known as Saint Kitts & Nevis. Nevis is the smaller of the 2 islands that are from the country of Saint Kitts & Nevis. It is a part of the lesser Antilles. It is a part of the archipelago group known as the Leeward Islands. Saint Nevis is approximately 383.31 Nautical / Marine miles from its closest point to mainland South America, specifically the country of Venezuela. It is also approximately 1128.85 Nautical / Marine Miles from the State of Florida, United States Of America. The island is well known for its beautiful beaches & high amount of exotic marine life. The island is extremely marine biodiverse due to its placement in Venezuela. You see, it is far enough away that Venezuelan vicious Creatures such as caiman cannot swim up the coast easily. This makes it a sort of haven for certain species to escape. One of these species is known as the Caribbean Reef Octopus. The Caribbean reef octopus lives in the waters of the Caribbean, primarily around Saint Nevis & Kitts, & Guadeloupe. They are incredibly It is usually found throughout the shallower oceanic areas due to there being lots of food in these areas. It can often be seen lounging about coral reefs or swimming. They often are also seen hunting in coral reefs very often. They are incredibly intelligent & beautiful creatures. They are not invasive to this area in any way. They are incredibly big contributors to the ecosystem due to them being the prey for many larger animals such as sharks. They are not poisonous in any capacity & usually will not harm humans unless extremely provoked. However, they are venomous. They are incredibly sweet & kind creatures, they can even show affection to humans. This will be discussed more thoroughly throughout the article. In this article, we will discuss the life of the Caribbean Reef Octopus, the mating procedures, tactics, practices, & cycles of the Caribbean Reef Octopus, the distribution of the Caribbean Reef Octopus, & finally the scientific detailings of the Caribbean Reef Octopus. With that being said let us delve into this tropical creature of paradise. The Life Of The Caribbean Reef Octopus The Caribbean Reef Octopus was first discovered by the British Mollusca researcher Guy Coburn Robson. He first described this species in 1929. It was first published in the book: A Monograph of the Recent Cephalopoda. Based on the collections in the British Museum, Natural History By Guy Coburn Robson. The mantle of the Caribbean Reef Octopus is incredibly large. It is much larger than many other species, sitting at up to 23.622 inches (60 centimeters) long. It weighs approximately 3.3 pounds (1.49685 kilograms) on average. The life span of a Caribbean Reef Octopus is approximately 1 year & 3 months. It often lands between 1 year & 1 year & a half. Cephalopods in general are incredibly smart. They are able to distinguish between emotions of themselves & other octopi. They are able to feel affection & even love for certain humans. They have been witnessed exhibiting signs of enjoying being pet. They are also able to distinguish between humans. At one point, an octopus was seen to use the past actions of multiple caretakers to make decisions of whether to attack them or not. They are also able to hold a grudge. Oftentimes, if one particular human does something bad to the octopus, the octopus will never forget this action. Octopi are very psychologically aware. They may not be very social, but they are capable of synchronizing hunting. They will make sounds to get other octopi to help them kill something, then spill the food. They also have advanced eyesight which helps them hunt. It is unknown how long this species in particular has existed for. They are relatively solitary creatures unless it comes to mating. They will often build dens & have stable housing, they are not migratory creatures. They are rather territorial with these dens going as far as committing homicide to keep their den from being invaded. Their primary diet consists of Caribbean Spiny Lobster, various crabs, various shrimp, & shellfish. They do practice cannibalism & will consume each other if given the opportunity. Their metabolism is relatively high due to their large size. They are nocturnal hunters & primarily hunt at nighttime. Their stomach capacity is unknown, the amount they eat per day is also unknown however it is most likely between 3% & 6% of their body mass. Their primary hunters are shark species & stingrays. The speed at which they may swim is unknown. They swim via jet propulsion. Octopi sleep by narrowing their eyes & then growing pale. They will then sleep for approximately 2 hours for every 12 hours they are alive. However there are 2 different types of sleep an octopus may have, these are known as quiet sleep & active sleep. During quiet sleep, the octopus is completely motionless & will not move, this is the normal sleeping practice. Active sleep is when the octopus is still somewhat awake however it is resting. This is characterized by changes in skin color & texture as well as flicker movements of the eyes, contracting suckers on the arms & finally muscle twitches on the body. The Caribbean Reef Octopus does not exhibit just one physical appearance. They can take on a multitude of different colors & skin textures. The way that they do this will be discussed later in the article. Caribbean reef octopi are typically bright green & blue, with reddish-brown speckles across their mantle & tentacles. Their skin can become smooth or bumpy depending on the environment they want to blend into. They can change color & texture at will. Oftentimes, they will be seen with smooth skin. The Mating Tactics, Procedures, Cycles, & Practices Of The Caribbean Reef Octopus Caribbean reef octopi mate via sexual reproduction. They are monogamous creatures meaning they only have 1 mate. They are not hermaphroditic & cannot change genders at will. However, this is due to them having a short life span They have no known mating ritual & will simply just mate instead of doing something elaborate. The male will mount the female & reach its hectocotylus, which is the sperm-containing tentacle, into her oviduct, releasing its sperm to cover the eggs. Alternatively, it will take off its hectocotylus entirely & give it to the female so that she can store his arm in her mantle & use it when the eggs are ready to be internally fertilized. The males die several months after fertilizing the eggs, while the females die shortly after laying the eggs. It is unknown how they call for these mates. They do appear to have specific breeding months, with those being February & March. However, mating is a year-round activity. Females can lay up to 200,000 eggs. It is unclear as to how many of these survive. The Gestation period lasts approximately 65 days. The approximate age of sexual maturity for females is 5 months to 7 months. The age of sexual maturity for males is unknown. Caribbean reef octopuses hatch roughly 65 to 80 days before hatching, they are 15 millimeters at birth with arms of 7-9 millimeters & a mantle averaging 5.5 millimeters. They exit the egg about 15 seconds after they first crack it. These octopuses emerge with the appearance of small adults. Caribbean reef octopuses grow at a rapid rate, increasing their weight by approximately 5% a day. Once octopuses have sexually matured at five months, they will continue to grow and exhibit indeterminate growth. By the time they die they will weigh one-third of the amount of food they have eaten throughout their life. 2 weeks after laying eggs, the female will reduce her diet by 50%. The Distribution Of The Caribbean Reef Octopus The Caribbean Reef Octopus is primarily found in the Caribbean. It is found as far south as northern South America & on the Atlantic side of the Panama Canal. It is found as north as southern Florida. They are not found on the Pacific-facing side of The Panama Canal. They are often found in shallow coral reefs. This is 1 meter to 20 meters deep. The reason they live in that specific area is due to there being a large quantity of food there. They also need to build dens, which is substantially easier in coral reefs than in sandy barren areas. These areas overall provide a variety of appealing conditions which make the perfect environment for this organism. The Scientific Detailings Of The Caribbean Reef Octopus Octopi are incredibly unique for many reasons, however the main reason is their uncharacteristically high intelligence. This is not a trait seen very often in marine or land species. They have an incredibly complex neurological structure. They do not have a central brain as we think of it. They have individual systems for each tentacle. This is why if you chop off an octopus tentacle it will still move afterwards. They can also feel extreme amounts of pain. They can also feel emotions towards octopi & other humans. If they are wronged they may hold a grudge against people or other octopi until they die. However, they may also become emotionally attached to humans. They may feel differently about certain humans. They can recognize human faces to a certain extent. Octopi in general have been seen solving mazes, & when presented with these mazes later they will remember the route out. This means they are able to reconstruct the situation in their mind in a way that pictures the layout of the maze & the way out. They do have individual personalities & unique traits as well. This is a sign to not doubt octopi intelligence at all. A contributing factor as to why this is is that they share a similar genetic sequence with humans, this genetic sequence regulates learning. The image above illustrates their anatomy & the placement of their organs. They have a total of 3 hearts much like squid or cuttlefish. They have 2 branchial hearts which pump blood to their gills. At this point, the blood will take in oxygen & be sent off to the systemic heart. After this, the systemic heart will pump the blood all over the body. Their blood is also blue instead of red. The reason for this is due to a copper-rich protein known as Hemocyanin existing in their blood. The existence of this protein in their blood causes their blood to be blue. This is very similar to the iron in Hemoglobin in human blood. This blue blood exists in all cephalopods. This blue blood can be used as a pigment if used properly. They do not have bones or any hard tissue besides their beaks. These beaks are located in the center base of all of the tentacles. They are able to fit through almost any hole that their beaks will fit through due to their purely soft tissue. The exact chemicals that their venom contains are unknown. They do use venom occasionally to force their prey to pass out, however they will not use this on humans. This species of octopus has 7 rows of teeth, however this is not as commonly found in other species. Their phylum is known as Mollusca. Mollusca is the 2nd largest phylum, just behind Arthopoda. Mollusca is however the largest marine phylum as it comprises approximately 23% of all documented marine species. The three most commonly found features defining modern species categorized under mollusks are the following: a mantle with a significant cavity used for breathing & excretion, the presence of a radula, and the structure of the nervous system. Their class is Cephalopoda. This class includes almost all species of cuttlefish, octopi, squid, & nautilus. Their order is Octopoda. This order contains the same types of species as Cephalopoda. A universal characteristic of this order is that all species classified under this are invertebrates. Their family is Octopodidae. This family contains the majority of all documented octopus species. Their current genus is known as Octopus. Octopus is the largest known genus of octopi holding over 100 species of octopus. This genus contains nothing but Octopi. This creature's binomial name is Octopus Briareus. Directories / Credits https://www.caradonna.com/blog/meet-octopus https://octonation.com/octopedia/caribbean-reef-octopus/ https://octonation.com/caribbean-reef-octopus-facts/ https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Octopus_briareus/#behavior https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/octopuses-keep-surprising-us-here-are-eight-examples-how.html https://www.livescience.com/jumping-genes-octopus-intelligence Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa

An Interview With Marine Biology Youtuber, SharkedSkooler This article is very special, as it contains an interview with a marine biology Youtuber, by the name of SharkedSkooler. Our main writer conducted an interview with SharkedSkooler on April 7th, 2024. SharkedSkooler is a relatively new marine biology YouTuber who has been active since March 5th, 2023, & has a deep fascination with marine biology. SharkedSkooler manages a popular marine biology online server, known as the Marine Enthusiasts Group. In this article, we shall be discussing our in depth interview with SharkedSkooler. With that being said, let us delve into the Contents of the Interview. The Contents Of The Interview SharkedSkooler’s passion for marine biology was sparked at a young age from programmes such as Shark Week, & oceanic video games. He began to watch documentaries about sharks, & gradually gained a great admiration & interest in Sharks & Cartilaginous Fish. He was influenced to make a channel by encouragement from his family, & from an interesting experience he had with another marine biology Youtuber. Approximately 2 years ago, SharkedSkooler decided to comment under videos about marine biology, posing as an actual shark. One day, he commented on a specific video which was on the topic of Why Sharks Attack Humans. He commented saying “Well, I'm a shark & I don't eat people. I prefer seals and big fishes." The creator soon replied by saying “Thanks Mr. Shark, I understand now. Maybe you can make videos about this?". SharkedSkooler gives direct credit to this creator for the creation of his channel. SharkedSkooler created his first video on March 5th of 2023 & continues to actively publish videos. As of April 2024, SharkedSkooler has approximately 384 subscribers, & has 10 published videos. His videos do not have a specific focus on marine biology, & he covers both prehistoric, & modern marine animals. Unfortunately, due to his studies, he does not have a set uploading schedule. He is the only person involved with the editing of videos, writing, uploading, & researching for the channel. He aims to have 500 subscribers by the end of 2024. Additionally, he aims to get monetized by YouTube, & to collaborate with larger creators as well as organizations. As a creator, & a marine biology enthusiast, he wishes to educate as many people as he is able to about marine life. SharkedSkooler wishes to pursue marine biology as a future career, & is completely determined to do so. For all those who wish to start a marine biology channel of their own, his primary advice is to study & research as much as you are able to. He recommends studying the YouTube algorithm, studying various marketing styles, studying video-making techniques, & maintaining a semi-consistent uploading schedule. For all those who wish to view his videos, & generally learn more about this creator, please visit https://youtube.com/@sharkedskooler . Directories / Credits SharkedSkooler, https://youtube.com/@sharkedskooler?si=1vQLtW8gcqkxOIu . Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

The Documented History Of Qeqertalik, Greenland Today's article will discuss the history of Qeqertalik, Greenland. Qeqertalik is the south central part of Greenland. It is shaped somewhat like a square & is an independent administrative zone. Greenland is an island off the coast of northern Canada which is owned by the European country of Denmark. The municipality of Qeqertalik is 538.26 Nautical / Marine miles (619.418546 miles or 996.85752 kilometers) from mainland Canada at its closest points. Qeqertalik is also 1298.35 Nautical / Marine miles (1494.114496 miles or 2404.5442 kilometers from the continental United States. This does not include the islands of Canada, this is only the continental areas of Canada. Including islands, Greenland is a mere 12.34 Nautical / Marine Miles (14.200618 miles or 22.85368 kilometers) from Canadian territory. The indigenous peoples of Greenland collectively call Greenland Kalaallit Nunaat. This translates into “The land of the people”. However, that translation cannot be 100% confirmed. Qeqertalik is one of the smallest municipalities of Greenland, it is shaped rectangularly. Greenland has a strange history with many different European countries, mainly Denmark. Qeqertalik was established as an individual administrative zone in 2018. The last census conducted in Qeqertalik was in the year 2020, it showed that there were 6,340 inhabitants. The administrative zone has a total of 24,100 square miles (62418.713 square kilometers). It is unclear how much of this area is ocean. Qeqertalik includes Disko Bay, which is a small bay in the western seaside portion of the zone. There are many islands in this bay, however the largest of them is known as Disko Island or, Qeqertarsuaq. It is the second largest island of Greenland. Disko Bay is primarily used for Halibut & shrimp fishing. A common dialect spoken here is Kalaallisut. It is the west Greenland dialect of Greenlandic. Greenlandic is one of the primary languages along with Danish. The highest elevation of Qeqertalik is along the mountain range known as the Knud Rasmussen range. It was named after the Greenlandic polar explorer, Knud Rassmussen. The Zone’s Official website is https://qeqertalik.gl/ . However the website is in Danish so they do not have a translation of the website. In this article we will discuss the discovery & documented history of Qeqertalik, The known aboriginals of Qeqertalik, the most destructive man caused & natural disasters of Qeqertalik, & finally a segment on the Greenlandic economy. With that being said, let us delve into the history of Qeqertalik. The Documented History Of Qeqertalik Please note that we will only be discussing the history of Qeqertalik. Not Greenland in its entirety. This will not discuss any other areas of Greenland. Before Colonization B.C Era Artifacts from Paleo-Inuit cultures have been discovered around Disko Bay. The earliest artifact that was found dates back to around 2500 B.C. From approximately 2500 B.C. to 800 B.C., Qeqertalik & the majority of southwest Greenland were inhabited by people of the Saqqaq culture. The majority of the archaeological remains which were from the Saqqaq-period980s have been around or near Disko Bay. This includes the site of Saqqaq, after which the culture is named. It is unknown what the culture called themselves. It is unknown how this culture fell as well. Other than this, it is unclear what happened during the B.C. years around Qeqertalik. Early Norse Settlement Era Erik the Red may have explored areas of Qeqertalik. This is unconfirmed as he sailed in from Iceland due to him being in exile for committing homicide. Iceland is toward the southeastern side rather than the southwestern, so it most likely would have been on his journey to northern Greenland. No Norse Bay settlements have been mentioned as being around Disko bay of Qeqertalik. Late Norse Settlement Era During the Late Norse Settlement Era, Disko Bay was used for Whaling & walrus hunting purposes. However, the whalers would usually be from far southern areas. There were no real settlements other than mythical-like small whaling & walrus hunting sites. They would also hunt polar bears & narwhals there in the winter. They would use the whales for fat & oil, the walruses for their ivory tusks & bones, the polar bears for their thick fur hides, & the narwhals for their mythical like canine. They would make clothes & other things with these resources & then export them. Most often they would be exported back to the south. It is unclear exactly the years this took place, but it took place mainly in the 12th & 13th century. However, during the 14th century, these sites began declining. The majority of Norse settlements in Greenland began on a decline from this point on. This decline corresponded with a large drop in temperatures in Greenland. It also corresponded with the decrease in the value of ivory in Europe. This drop caused agricultural failure, which caused famine. During the early 16th century, the last few Norse people left this area of Greenland. This left only the Inuit tribes in this area of Greenland. After Norwegian Colonization After being settled by Norsemen in the 980’s, it was submitted to be under the rule of the Norwegian Kingdom in 1263. It officially became a crown dependency in 1263. Denmark & Sweden entered the Kalmar Union with Norway in 1397 under the Queen of Norway, & Norway's overseas territories including Greenland later became subject to the king in Copenhagen. In 1408, there was one of the first mentions of Norwegian settlers. It is unclear where exactly in Greenland they went. However, Qeqertalik would have been especially interesting for its abundance of natural resources. The last marriage record between a Norse man & woman was also in 1408. Following the establishment of an independent Sweden, Norway & Denmark were reorganized into a polity now known as Denmark-Norway in 1536/1537 & the nominal Norwegian sovereignty over Greenland was taken up by the new union. Around this time, the last remaining Norse people disappeared leaving only the Inuit tribes. Despite the decline of European settlement & the loss of contact, Denmark–Norway continued to maintain its claim to the lordship of Greenland. After Danish Re-Colonization In the 1720’s a Lutheran Dano-Norwegian known as Hans Egede started a missionary campaign to convert the local Inuit tribes into Lutheranism. He also wanted to erect small colonies around. However, scurvy was rampant & killed approximately 75% of all people brought from Denmark-Norway. Not all of these colonies' documentations were released to the public domain & a few of them were quite close-by, by in modern Inday Semersooq. It is possible that one of these colonies could have existed or temporarily existed in parts of southern Qeqertalik. As a result of the Napoleonic Wars, Norway was ceded to Sweden at the 1814 Treaty Of Kiel. The colonies, including Greenland, remained in Danish possession. The 19th century saw increased interest in the region on the part of polar explorers & scientists like William Scoresby & Greenland-born Knud RassmussRasmussenan. At the same time, the colonial elements of the earlier trade-oriented Danish presence in Greenland expanded. In the year of 1861, the first Greenlandic Language journal was founded. This would go on to become one of the only Greenlandic Language journals to exist. Danish law still applied to only the Danish settlers. At the turn of the 19th century, the northern part of Greenland was still sparsely populated; only scattered hunting inhabitants were found there. The reason for this is due to it being extremely cold & remote. Another reason is that the majority of the natural resources have not been discovered yet. During that century, however, Inuit families immigrated from British North America to settle in these areas. The last group from what later became Canada arrived in 1864. They mostly settled in the north, however, a few families did go to the Qeqertalik region or what would become the surrounding areas of the Qeqertalik region. Modernly, there is documentation that some of these families do still make up a decent amount of the population of north Greenland. The Released Data Of Greenlands Place In World War 2 The Aboriginal Tribes Of Qeqertalik The Saqaqq Tribe Of Indigenous Peoples The Saqqaq culture is what is known as a Paleo-Eskimo culture in southern Greenland. No other cultures have appeared to live in Greenland continuously longer than the Saqqaq. Extremely little is known about this tribe of indigenous people. It seems that they appeared in Greenland in approximately 2500 B.C & disappeared around 800 B.C. They were not found in northern Greenland or Canada. What is known is that the Saqqaq culture came in two phases, the main difference between the two is that the newer phase adopted the use of sandstone. This was a material that was only found in southern Greenland. It is found in other areas of the world however it is not found in the north. The younger phase of the Saqqaq culture coincides with the oldest phase of the Dorset culture. 6 Saqqaq individuals were found buried on the island of Qeqertasussuk. They were believed to have been buried between 3000 B.C & 1900 B.C. The Saqqaq people are believed to have originated in Siberia & migrated from Russia to Alaska. They most likely came to Alaska around the year 4000 B.C. Then through Canada to Greenland. The Most Destructive Natural & Man-Caused Disasters Of Greenland No. 1 Narsaq Massacre Of 1990 The Narsaq Massacre Of 1990 occurred at a party in Narsaq which is in the municipality of Kujalleq, Greenland. The Narsaq massacre was a mass shooting that occurred on January 1st, 1990. This shooting caused 7 fatalities & 1 critical injury. The weapon involved was a Remington Model 552 which is a semiautomatic rifle. The man who committed this grievous act is known as Abel Klemmensen. The Remington Model 552 is also not manufactured in Greenland so it is most likely that Klemmensen smuggled this weapon from the United States where it is manufactured. The reason that this happened is because Abel Klemmensen got involved in a dispute with his close friend for taking the side of a girl he was angry at. It is unclear exactly why Klemmensen was angry at this woman. Feeling betrayed, he then went home & later returned to the party with a semiautomatic rifle with the intention to kill all attendants of the party & commit suicide after committing this act. The disgruntled perpetrator then opened fire in a boarding house complex in Ungbo, being used as a club, & he aimed for people's heads. In two rooms on the first floor of the makeshift club, he shot three women & four men, including his brother, who was wounded by a shot through the upper cheek. While he was walking downstairs to the living room he shot a fourth woman. He had fired eleven rounds & all of his victims were shot in the head. Afterward, Klemmensen went home to sleep instead of committing suicide, and he was then taken into police custody. All people who were killed were of Inuit origin. The man in custody was identified as an 18-year-old student who confessed to the killings, said the police inspector Lars Heilman. The suspect's name was later released as Abel Klemmensen. The crime scene was described as "gruesome" by the police photographers. A team of police forensic scientists traveled to Narsaq from Copenhagen to investigate the killings, but due to heavy snowfall were severely delayed. Those who were killed as a result of this massacre were identified as three men, aged 18, 33 & 34, & four women, aged 18, 19, 26 & 29. The wounded man was only identified as a "22-year-old man in stable condition with head wounds". The identities of his victims were later released as Henrik Barnabassen, aged 34, Kathrine Broberg, aged 18, Paarnannguaq Godtfredsen, aged 26, Jakob Grønvold aged 18, Tove Isaksen, aged 19, Bibiane Kristiansen, aged 29 & finally Egede Tittusen, aged 33. The wounded man was identified as Kristian Klemmensen, aged 22. The wounded man was Abel’s brother. Klemmensen was later diagnosed with Narcissistic Personality Disorder & was sentenced to indefinite detention at a psychiatric institution in March of the following year. He is still imprisoned to this day. No. 2 1962 Nuuk Catalina Crash On May 12th of 1962 Eastern Provincial Airways Canso amphibious aircraft which was operating for Greenlandair / Air Greenland crashed into the ocean off the coast of Nuuk. This caused the plane to sink before they could reach safety. The aircraft caused a total of 15 fatalities. There were a total of 6 survivors. Initially, it was thought that the plane crashed directly into the water however it was later revealed that the plane crashed into debris that were on the water. It crashed near the Godthab Harbor. A technical investigation concluded that the nose wheel doors had not closed properly probably due to mechanical failure. With a gap of 70 millimeters, the doors were torn off on landing letting water into the nose wheel bay, the pressure of water caused a bulkhead to fail and the aircraft to sink. No. 3 1968 Thule Air Base Crash B-52 The Thule Air Base Crash of 1968 occurred on the 21st of January. It occurred off the coast of Greenland near the Thule air base in north Baffin Bay. The aircraft was carrying four B28FI thermonuclear bombs on a Cold War so-called “Chrome Dome” alert mission over northern Baffin Bay when a cabin fire forced the crew to abandon the aircraft before they could carry out an emergency at Thule Air Base. The cause of this cabin fire was not named. Six crew members were ejected safely, but one who did not have an ejection seat was killed while trying to bail out. The bomber crashed onto floating ice sheets known as Sea Ice in North Star Bay. This the conventional explosives aboard the aircraft to detonate & the nuclear payload to rupture and disperse, resulting in extreme radioactive contamination of the area. The radioactive materials that dispersed from the aircraft are Uranium-238, Uranium-235, Uranium-234, Plutonium-239, Plutonium-240, Plutonium-241 Americium-241, & Tritium. There is a much more detailed Wikipedia entry known as https://en.m.wikipedia.org . It includes the operation to clean up this radioactive material & the harrowing survival story of the remaining crew members. It also includes the political scandal that arose as a result of this incident. The Economic State Of Greenland As A Whole Greenlands' economy is stable as of 2024. Some characteristics of Greenlands' economy are that it is incredibly small & is vulnerable as it largely depends on Foreign trade. Their currency is the Danish Krone. The fiscal year of Greenland is the calendar year. They are classified as a high-income economy. There is a total population of 56,367, & a labor force of 26,840 people. This would mean that a total of 47.616513208083% of the population is in the labor force. Their current nominal GDP per capita is 48,296$ USD. This is approximately 337,487.64 Danish Krone. Their GDP by sector is 15.9% agriculture, 10.1% industry, & 73.9% services. The unemployment rate is 9.1% of Greenland or 5129.397 people. The most prominent industries of Greenland are currently fish processing, Oil, gold, niobium, tantalite, uranium, iron, diamond mining, handicrafts, hides, skins, & finally small shipyards. Approximately 91% of all commercial exports out of Greenland are fish of fish products. Their main export partners are Denmark (88.5%) & Iceland (4.4%). The gross revenue of Greenland in 2016 was 1.719 billion USD. The average cost for a 1 bedroom 1 bathroom apartment in the city center is approximately 5,701 Danish Krone or approximately 815.84 USD. The average cost for a 1 bedroom 1 bathroom apartment outside of the city center is approximately 5,095.81 Danish Krone or 729.23 USD. Tourism does not affect the housing market of Greenland. Greenland also does not have a publicly traded stock market. Directories / Credits https://www.mindat.org/loc-305594.html Gunman held after 5 die in Eskimo village shooting spree , The Deseret News 7 Die in Greenland's Bloodiest Mass Shooting; Suspect Held , Los Angeles Times Danish Student's Rampage Leaves 7 Dead , St. Louis Post-Dispatch Ingen prøveløsladelse til Abel , Sermitsiaq Ingen prøveløsladelse til syv-dobbelt morder , Kalaallit Nunaata Radioa https://www.numbeo.com/cost-of-living/country_result.jsp?country=Greenland https://www.numbeo.com/property-investment/country_result.jsp?country=Greenland https://www.britannica.com/place/Greenland/History https://www.cs.mcgill.ca/~rwest/wikispeedia/wpcd/wp/h/History_of_Greenland.htm Diamond, Jared (2005). Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed . Viking. ISBN   978-0-14-303655-5 . Seaver, Kristen A. (1996). The Frozen Echo . Stanford University Press . ISBN   978-0-8047-3161-4 . Grove, Jonathan (2009). "The place of Greenland in medieval Icelandic saga narrative" . Journal of the North Atlantic. Special Volume 2: Norse Greenland: Selected Papers of the Hvalsey Conference 2008: 30–51. doi : 10.3721/037.002.s206 . S2CID   163032041 . Archived from the original on 2012-04-11. Kendrick, T.D. (2012) [1930]. A History of the Vikings . Courier. ISBN   978-0-486-12342-4 . Hreinsson, Viðar, ed. (1997). The Complete Sagas of Icelanders, Including 49 Tales. Reykjavík: Leifur Eiríksson. ISBN   978-9979929307 . U.S. National Museum of Natural History (2000). Fitzhugh, William W.; Ward, Elisabeth I. (eds.). Vikings: The North Atlantic Saga . Smithsonian Institution Press. ISBN   978-1560989707 . Gulløv, Hans Christian, ed. (2005). Grønlands forhistorie. Gyldendal: National Museum of Denmark. ISBN   978-87-02-01724-3 . Greenland during the Cold War. Danish & American security policy 1945–1968. Copenhagen: Danish Institute of International Affairs (DUPI). 1997-01-17. ISBN   978-87-601-6922-9 . LCCN   97161960 . Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa

Marine Hall Of Distinction: Doctor Ruth Deborah Gates This article is a part of our collection known as the Marine Hall Of Distinction. It is a different series from our main monthly series & has no connection to the main monthly series. In this special collection, we will discuss marine biologists who we feel have served marine biology & oceanography the most. We do this in order to commemorate these marine biologists & to show gratitude for everything they have contributed to our oceans. This collection has no relation to the main monthly series. This series is published on the 25th of every month, shortly after our article on the oceanic environment of a certain region on the 20th. Today’s marine biologist is Doctor Ruth Deborah Gates. Ruth Deborah Gates was one of the world’s foremost experts on coral ecology, & the effects of ocean acidification on coral. She founded the Gates Coral Laboratory, & has innovated astonishing techniques regarding coral conservation. Her techniques involved figuring out what exactly caused corals to survive stress, & genetically amplifying the gene that caused it to survive. She was also the director of the Hawai’i Institute for Marine Biology, located on Coconut Island.    According to her testimony, she has a deep passion for the field, & has had it since she was an adolescent. In addition to her career as a scientist, marine biologist, & laboratory director, she has done quite a lot of public speaking, mentorship, & working on documentaries. She & her work were featured in the 2017 Emmy-winning documentary “Chasing Coral”. In this article, we shall discuss the Education & Formative Years Of Doctor Ruth Deborah Gates, The Career & Later Life Of Doctor Ruth Deborah Gates & the Accomplishments, Achievements, Awards, & Honorables Of Doctor Ruth Deborah Gates. With that being said, let us delve into the life of one of the most well-versed coral biologists of the 21st Century. The Education & Formative Years Of Doctor Ruth Deborah Gates Ruth Deborah Gates was born on March 28th, 1962. She was born in Akrotiri, which is an area controlled by the British on the island of Cyprus. She was born to John Amos Gates, a Royal British Airforce Intelligence Officer, & Muriel Peel Gates, a physiotherapist. With her father in the military, she was always moving around as a child. For her education, she was sent to a boarding school in Kent, England. Her intense fascination with the ocean & coral biology was always present, however, it truly began to blossom during her university years. She enrolled & studied at the esteemed Newcastle University, & earned a Bachelor of Science in Marine Biology Biology. Graduating in 1984, she went on a diving trip to the West Indies to study coral. On this trip, she became absolutely enraptured by them. Soon after, in 1985, she moved to the West Indies to study these corals. She would get her doctorate in Marine Biology in the year 1990, from the same university. Her thesis was on the subject of Seawater temperature & algal-cnidarian symbiosis. The Career & Later Life Of Doctor Ruth Deborah Gates Her first large research project was about coral bleaching events in Jamaica. Soon after, she would conduct research at the University Of California, Los Angeles, & the University of Hawai’i. She officially joined the University of Hawai’i in 2003. It is here where she studied how coral reefs function, & what made some corals survive high temperatures. In the year 2013, the Paul G. Allen Family Foundation offered 10,000$ to anyone or any group who could offer the most promising proposal to mitigate the effects of ocean acidification. Gates & another scientist, Madeline Van Oppen, a scientist with the Australian Institute of Marine Science, rose to the challenge. They managed to develop highly resilient coral strains, & won the award. Along with the 10,000 dollars, the foundation granted them a 4 million dollar grant, with the long-term goal of developing a stock of coral strains that can replace certain dying coral reefs of the world. Despite criticism of the logistics, & financial support required for such undertakings, the scientist persevered. In 2014, her brother, Timothy Gates, introduced her to Robin Burton, who would later become her wife. The pair would be in September of 2018. & remained married until Gate’s passing. In 2015, founded & directed the Gates Coral Laboratory, at the Hawai’i Institute of Marine Biology. She would direct the laboratory for 3 more years, until her unfortunate passing. Gates & her team hosted the first coral restoration conference at the Hawai’i Institute Of Marine Biology in 2017, which brought together some of the world's best coral biologists to discuss coral restoration. Doctor Ruth Deborah Gates passed away at the age of 56, on October 25th in Kailua, Hawai’i. She passed at Castle Hospital. She passed away due to complications from a surgery related to diverticulitis. Purportedly, she also had cancer that had spread to her brain. Throughout her life, she enjoyed karate, & earned a third-degree black belt in it. She had a deep respect for the martial art, so much so that she started a small school for it in Hawai’i. Additionally, she learned how to remodel homes, & mastered the art of cooking. Throughout her career, she was always accessible to the public, & did a lot of public speaking & a few interviews. The super corals that she engineered will have an incredible impact on coral ecosystems, as well as humans. Her contributions to coral reef biology will not be forgotten, & her contributions will have a long-lasting impact on the coral reefs of our world. The Accomplishments, Achievements, Awards, & Honourables Of Ruth Deborah Gates Achievement No. 1: She Founded The Gates Coral Laboratory, which is still in operation at the time of publishing. Achievement No. 2: She was awarded the Regents Medal for Excellence in Research. Achievement No. 3: She engineered super corals that can survive extremely high temperatures, along with scientist Madeline Van Oppen. Directories / Credits Citation No. 1: “In Memoriam: Ruth D. Gates”, Written By Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published By the University of Hawai’i. Retrieval Date: March 23rd, 2024. https://research.hawaii.edu/noelo/in-memoriam-ruth-d-gates/ Citation No. 2: “Ruth Gates, Who Made Saving Coral Reefs Her Mission, Is Dead at 56”, Written By Katharine Q. Seeyle, & Published on November 5th, 2018. Published by the New York Times. Retrieval Date: March 23rd, 2024. https://www.nytimes.com/2018/11/05/obituaries/ruth-gates-dead-marine-biologist-who-championed-coral.html Citation No. 3: “Ruth D. Gates (1962-2018)”, Written by Peter J. Edmunds, & Doctor M. Weis, & Published on December 10th, 2018. Published by Springer Nature. Retrieval Date: March 23rd, 2024. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-018-0763-4 Citation No. 4: “Ruth Gates Obituary” Written by Barbara Brown, & Published on November 22nd, 2018. Published by The Guardian. Retrieval Date: March 23rd, 2024. https://amp.theguardian.com/environment/2018/nov/22/ruth-gates-obituary Citation No. 5: “Ruth Gates, renowned coral scientist & conservation advocate, dies at 56”, Written by Christie Wilcox & Published on October 31st, 2018. Retrieval Date: March 23rd, 2024. https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/obituaries/ruth-gates-renowned-coral-scientist-and-conservation-advocate-dies-at-56/2018/10/31/535ca9da-dc73-11e8-b732-3c72cbf131f2_story.html Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

The Oceans Surrounding Qeqertalik, Greenland Today's article will discuss the oceans surrounding the Greenlandic state of Qeqertalik. Qeqertalik is the south central part of Greenland. It is shaped somewhat like a square & is an independent administrative zone. Greenland is an island off the coast of northern Canada which is owned by the European country of Denmark. The indigenous peoples of Greenland collectively call Greenland Kalaallit Nunaat. This roughly translates into “The land of the people”, However, that translation cannot be 100% confirmed. Qeqertalik is one of the smallest municipalities of Greenland, it is shaped rectangularly. It is an incredibly unique & diverse marine due to it being rather untouched by most humans & due to the abundance of natural resources. The municipality of Qeqertalik is 538.26 Nautical / Marine miles (619.418546 miles or 996.85752 kilometers) from mainland Canada at its closest points. Qeqertalik is also 1298.35 Nautical / Marine miles (1494.114496 miles or 2404.5442 kilometers from the continental United States. This does not include the islands of Canada, this is only the continental areas of Canada. Including islands, Greenland is a mere 12.34 Nautical / Marine Miles (14.200618 miles or 22.85368 kilometers) from Canadian territory. Due to Greenland's placement, it is often assumed that Greenland does not have very exciting marine life. It is also assumed that Greenland doesn’t have a diverse marine ecosystem. However, Greenland in fact does have many marine animals that live around the isle. One of the best examples of creatures that live around Qeqertalik in particular are narwhals which are found in very few other parts of the world. Not only does it have diverse fauna, but it has many unique strains of algae found around Qeqertalik. However, the majority of these marine species are incredibly hard to observe. This will be discussed throughout the article. In this article we will not be discussing all of Greenland's oceans, we will only be discussing the specific oceans around Qeqertalik. In this article, we will discuss the salinity, temperature, marine geography & terrain, the most important marine ecosystems, the documented marine flora & fauna, & the utilization of the marine resources of Qeqertalik. With that being said, let us delve into the frigid waters of Qeqertalik. The Salinity, Temperature, Tides, Basic Information, & Marine Geography Of Qeqertalik The average salinity in the waters surrounding Qeqertalik is 33.75 parts per thousand on average at any given time. The lowest measured salinity is 33 parts per thousand & the highest measured salinity is 34.5 parts per thousand. Salinity is measured in 1,000 grams of water. For every 1000 grams of water, there will be a certain number of grams that are pure salt. This is how salinity or saline level is measured. Greenland sits in the Arctic Ocean. The Arctic Ocean has the lowest salinity out of all existing oceans. This makes the existence of brine pools or salty deposits of water very unlikely. There are no ongoing factors that would contribute to the Salinity level being rapidly changed. The water temperature of Qeqertalik is found on a plethora of websites but the easiest one to navigate is https://www.tideschart.com . This contains both the water temperature & tidal charts. Due to Qeqertaliks' placement, the tides usually never get over 12.1391 feet tall (3.7 meters). However, for the Greenlandic Sea, the tide is not the same. Instead having an average high tide of 14.4357 feet (4.4 meters). These waves are usually the reason for ice packs not being near shore. The reason for that is due to these waves destroying & breaking apart the ice packs. The highest tide is usually the second tide of the day. The deepest oceanic point within 5 Nautical / Marine miles of Qeqertalik, is 1640.4 feet (499.99392 meters) deep. There is also somewhat of a current around Qeqertalik. This current flows to northern Greenland however it is extremely weak. There is also no riptide to the point where it would be dangerous to any swimmers. Swimming is not a common activity as it is extremely cold even in the summer months. There are not very many recreational marine activities that take place around Qeqertalik. The most popular recreational activity is to go out commercial sailing to look for marine animals. Water pollution is not very bad as most tourists don’t go to Qeqertalik & most boats do not pass through here. Most of the oceanic floor consists of mud, rock, & occasionally sand. There are hard coral reefs however those are off the coast of southern Greenland. There are no known coral reefs around Qeqertalik. However, this may change in the future. The Most Prominent Marine Ecosystems Of Qeqertalik Ice Sleets Ice sheets are thick sheets of ice that are found offshore. They are usually not permanent fixtures & will often break apart after a while. This is a common place for animals to congregate & breed. A good example is walruses, as they often are seen congregating on ice sleets. These are also common places for animals to give live birth. These sleets are found on shore & are often between 1 foot & 5 feet thick. Rock Tunnels & Formations These types of ecological systems are the majority of the underwater shelter for fish or squid. These usually consist of large underwater tunnels or small rocks that are often burrowed into. These systems often function as fish nurseries, breeding grounds, hunting grounds, & living spaces for animals. Seagrass meadows are often found nearby as well. These formations are usually found between 15-300 feet (4.572 to 91.44 meters) deep. Hard Coral Reefs Hard coral reefs have been found off the coast of Cape Desolation, this makes the possibility of hard coral reefs around Qeqertalik quite high. However, this has never been proven. Individual coral stocks have been found however actual reefs have not been found around Qeqertalik. If these coral reefs were to exist they would have hard limestone exoskeletons. There is only 1 known species of cold water coral that was found at the Cape Desolation coral reef. This species was Lophelia Pertusa, also known as stone coral. This would mean that the supposed coral reefs at Qeqertalik would most likely only have stone coral. The Documented Marine Flora Of Qeqertalik There is only 1 known species of seagrass that is found around Qeqertalik. This species of seagrass is known as Zostera Marina (Common Eelgrass). This seagrass grows in many places around Qeqertalik & Greenland. It also weakens the current & prevents water erosion. It prevents water erosion by not allowing the water to flow as quickly. The eelgrass acts as a sort of buffer against the ground. There are also various species of algae that bloom on glaciers & ice sleets. These are known as Ice algae. However, the actual species of these algae have yet to have been released to the public domain. These algae blooms are absolutely horrible for the environment. The reason for that is that they are rapidly speeding up the rate at which these glaciers & ice sleets melt. The algae does this by causing the glacier to need more solar energy to sustain the algae, which in turn causes the glaciers to melt. This type of algae is known as Ice algae, not Glacier Algae. Glacier algae are for surface snow environments, not sea Ice environments. It is unknown which one of these is present, or if they all are present. Other than the aforementioned examples, there are very few other marine flora species, if any. The Documented Marine Fauna Of Qeqertalik There are very few types of marine Fauna found around Qeqertalik. The few species that are found have extremely specialized features that allow them to survive. Most marine creatures who are found around here have blubber or a high-fat diet which makes them larger. This would provide them with insulation that is much needed. For the sake of this article, we will not be counting polar bears, or water birds on the list. This is due to the fact that they are not mostly or fully aquatic. There is a particularly high density of shrimp around this area. This attracts many species looking for prey, which in turn gives a high density of those species. These species are seals. There are many different species of seals around Greenland & this can be attributed to the high density of shrimp. The most prominent marine species of Qeqertalik are the following: Monodon Monoceros (Narwhal), Megaptera Novaeangliae (Humpback Whale), Orcinus Orca (Orca / Killed Whale), Phoca Hispada (Ringed seal), Phoca Groenlandica (Saddleback Seal), Phoca Vitulina, (Harbour seal), Gadus Morhua (Atlantic cod), Salmo Salar (Atlantic salmon), Salvelinus alphinus (Arctic char), Hippoglossus Hippoglossus (Atlantic Halibut), Reinhardtius Hippoglossoides (Greenland Halibut), Sebastes Marinus (Rose Fish), Pandalus Borealis (Greenland Shrimp) & finally Anarhichas Lupus (Seawolf). How The Marine Resources Of Qeqertalik Were Used & How It Affected The Oceans The most common use of the marine resources of Qeqertalik is fishing. Often people will commercial fish around Greenland for Halibut, Salmon, & Shrimp. This affects the environment by causing population depletion of the mentioned species. This also causes certain other species such as seals, to starve. Also, the creatures that the mentioned species consume or prey upon will grow in population. This may cause an environmental crisis similar to the Crown Of Thornes issue around Tutuila, American Samoa. Directories / Credits https://www.livescience.com/43116-greenland-coral-reef-discovered.html https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmicb.2019.00524/full Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa

The Greenlandic Narwhal of Qeqertalik (Monodon Monoceros) This month's article series will discuss... The Greenlandic Municipality of Qeqertalik! Qeqertalik is a Municipality on the Danish island of Greenland. It is to the westernmost areas of Greenland. Greenland exists in the Arctic Ocean being a bit east of Canada. The indigenous peoples of Greenland collectively call Greenland Kalaallit Nunaat. This translates into “The land of the people”. However, that translation cannot be 100% confirmed. Qeqertalik is one of the smallest municipalities of Greenland, it is shaped rectangularly. It is an incredibly unique & diverse marine due to it being rather untouched by most humans & due to the abundance of natural resources. The municipality of Qeqertalik is 538.26 Nautical / Marine miles (619.418546 miles or 996.85752 kilometers) from mainland Canada at its closest points. Qeqertalik is also 1298.35 Nautical / Marine miles (1494.114496 miles or 2404.5442 kilometers from the continental United States. This does not include the islands of Canada, this is only the continental Canada. Greenland is usually not a place where you think of marine creatures, however, it has a peculiar assortment of marine animals. One of the most prominent marine animals of Qeqertalik is known as the Narwhal. Believed to be a hoax at first, this creature is rather strange. The narwhal is particularly famous & distinguished due to its large protruding horn that pokes out from the middle of the narwhal's face. This large horn is the narwhal's left canine, much like a walrus tusk. This strange horn will be discussed thoroughly throughout the article. However the horn of the narwhal is not the only strange thing about it, the narwhal has a long history & took to even be recognized as a real species. Due to this & for several other reasons, this animal is arguably one of the most famous animals of the Arctic Ocean. The narwhal while found in other areas, is found in the highest density on the western coast of Greenland. In this article, we will discuss the life of the Greenlandic Narwhal, the mating procedures, tactics, practices, & cycles of the Greenlandic Narwhal, the distribution of the Greenlandic Narwhal & finally the scientific detailings of the Greenlandic Narwhal. With that being said, let us delve into this mysterious & mythical creature. The Life Of The Narwhal The Narwhal was discovered in 1577 by the English explorer known as Martin Frobisher. He found it while on an expedition around Northern Canada. It was originally thought to be a sea unicorn. It was first described as a species in 1758 by Carl Linnaeus, a great taxonomist. It was described in his publication “Systema Naturae”. The narwhal may grow up to be approximately 17 feet (5.1816 meters) in length, this includes the tusk. The large protruding canine grows to be on average 7.55 feet (2.30124 feet). The canine is cylindrical & has a pointed end. It is important to note that the majority of females do not have a tusk, while the majority of males do. Occasionally a male can be seen with 2 tusks. A full-grown narwhal will weigh between 2,100 pounds (952.544 kilograms) & 4,200 pounds (1905.088 kilograms). The males tend to be heavier than the females on average. The narwhal will live to be at least 25 years of age, however, the oldest narwhal on record lived to be 50 years of age. Narwhals are incredibly smart creatures as they are similar to dolphins. Their brains are also the same size as the human brain when relative to body mass. They are able to use skills & teach hunting techniques to other narwhals. Narwhals are not just able to mirror other narwhals' behaviors, they have learned how to mirror other species' behaviors. They are also able to synchronize attacks. Little is known about their emotional capacity, however in other studies with their close relatives known as dolphins, the dolphins can be seen going through grief cycles & feeling loss. Narwhals are social creatures who live in groups of 10-20 individual narwhals. They do not often appear by themselves. They are not aggressive towards humans & not aggressive towards each other, they are aggressive to fish species but that is due to the narwhal wanting to consume the fish. They also generally avoid interaction with humans. There is no evidence to suggest that Narwhals are territorial, they seem to migrate fairly often & prefer to not stay in one place. They are primarily hunted by polar bears & Orcas. However a Greenland shark has been found with the remains of a Narwhal in its stomach, it remains unclear if the narwhal was hunted purposefully or if the shark stole the narwhal from another species. The narwhals' diet largely consists of fish such as cod & halibut. However occasionally they can be seen consuming squid & shrimp. They are not cannibalistic in any capacity. The narwhal can consume up to 66 pounds (29.9371 kilograms) of food per day. They more often consume 20-25 pounds (9.07185 to 11.3398 kilograms) per day. They do not have a particularly elevated metabolism so that is not the reason for their high appetite. They do not have a particular time in which they hunt. They hunt by stabbing the fish with the canine & then consuming the fish. They can swim at up to 4.03891 miles per hour (6.499995575 kilometers per hour), which helps them catch fish with immense ease. They have a pair of short flippers that help them swim & turn in the water & their rear flukes assist with propelling them forward. The narwhal is a chunky, stocky whale with a small rounded head. They have short flippers towards the front of them & they do not have a flexible neck. Narwhals have a grey to grey-blue coloration at birth. However, throughout the narwhal's life, the narwhal will turn a light grey, when the narwhal grows very old the narwhal may look completely white. The narwhals sleep by going on the ice or halfway onto the ice to make sure they don’t drown while they sleep, & then cuddling for warmth. They do have eyelids so when the narwhal is sleeping the narwhal will close its eyes. The Mating Tactics, Practices, Procedures, & Cycles Of The Narwhal Narwhals mate via sexual reproduction. They are not hermaphroditic & cannot change sexes. However, like most mammals, some Narwhals might be born intersex. They do appear to be monogamous & they do seem to mate for life. The males will sexually mature between the ages of 8 & 10 years. The females will sexually mature between 4 to 8 years of age. The females are most fertile years before the age of 20. After that females will not have the same ease of having a calf. after They do appear to have a particular mating season, this season lasts from the middle of April through the beginning of March. Little is known about the actual mating ritual, however it is known that they mate belly to belly. Also, an attribute that will help the males find a female is the size of their horn. Scientists believe that females will prefer a narwhal that has a larger horn. This is most likely due to females just preferring larger males which usually means that the males' horns will be larger than others. They most likely mate via internal fertilization, however this remains unconfirmed. They often will mate on pack ice off shore or in the water which makes observation of their mating habits difficult. Their gestation period lasts from 13 months to 16 months, the calf will then be born in the summer of the following year. They will have children every 3 years or so. The female will only ever have a singular calf, having twin calves is incredibly rare but not impossible. This is due to the size of the calves. After the calf is born the father will not be a part of the baby's life. The calf will nurse from the mother for approximately 1 year & 6 months before leaving to hunt on its own. During the 18 month period, the baby will be taught how to hunt & will learn how to eat solid foods. It is unclear as to when exactly the baby will start eating solid foods. The mother will stop lactating afterward. The calf will then go off to join a pod on its own. The Geographical Distribution Of The Narwhal The narwhal usually sticks to the Arctic Ocean. Contrary to popular belief the narwhal is not found near Antarctica. The narwhal is found throughout northern areas of Canada such as Nunavut, it is also found throughout Greenland, Alaska & various western parts of Russia. They are also believed to be found somewhat north of the Norwegian archipelago of Spitsbergen, however, this has yet to be confirmed. The narwhal is usually found approximately 200 miles (321.869 kilometers) from shore & does not often come close to the coast. They may dive to depths over 4,500 feet (1371.6 meters) multiple times a month, which makes it incredibly hard to track them. There are approximately 80,000 narwhals left on planet Earth & we do not know everywhere narwhals are found. The not any known subspecies of the narwhal, however, this may change. The Scientific Detailings Of The Narwhal The Narwhal is a special creature for many reasons, however the most notable of those is the giant horn that it has. This horn is a canine, it is made of ivory & it looks sort of like a spiral. It is important to note that the canine is lodged in the jaw & the base of the canine is covered in flesh. Mostly only males have this horn, however, some females are documented to have it. It is significantly rarer to find a female with a horn. The males will sometimes have 2 horns or canines sticking out. This is rare, as only 1 in every 500 males will grow to have 2 horns. Only 1 female has ever been documented to have 2 horns. Through the years the horn will grow like a tree, with its rings growing up. Another remarkable thing is the brain-to-body mass ratio. It is about the same as humans which begs a lot of questions as to the intelligence of Narwhals. However incredibly little is known about them due to their geographical placement throughout the world. Learning more about the narwhal is not a large priority so most likely this will remain for many decades to come. The narwhal does not have any other teeth other than the large canine. It is not known how they consume without grinding it. They will most likely swallow the prey whole after stunning it with the horn. However, this is only a theory & has not been confirmed. Their bone structure is quite similar to a beluga whale. It is quite short, stout, & cylindrical. They are vertebrates & mammals as they lactate. Narwhals as a species have existed for approximately 1 million years. It is unknown what warranted this evolutionary trait. It was most likely a small original population & this was a gene that kept on being bred back into the species. This would cause more narwhals to keep picking up this trait until it existed in every narwhal & then so on & so forth. Their phylum is Chordata meaning that they developed these 5 characteristics all species under the phylum of Chordata develop 5 similar characteristics either In adulthood or as juveniles. The characteristics that they develop include, a notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, endostyle or thyroid, pharyngeal Slits, & a post-anal tail. Their class is Mammalia. Mammalia is classified by the production of milk by the mother for their child to nurse, a neocortex which is a region of the brain, some capacity for fur or hair, & three middle ear bones.  There are currently 6,400 species categorized under the class of Mammalia. Their order is Artiodactyla. which are even-toed ungulates. Species categorized under Artiodactyla are ungulates, hoofed animals which bear weight equally on two of their five toes, these toes are the third & fourth toes. The other three toes are either present, absent, vestigial, or pointing posteriorly. Their infraorder is that of Cetacea. Key characteristics of this infraorder are their fully aquatic lifestyle, streamlined body shape, often large size & exclusively carnivorous diet. Another characteristic is their incredible social intelligence. There are roughly 90 species categorized under Cetacea. Their family is Monodontidae. This is a cetacean family that only comprises 2 living species, those species being the Beluga whale & the Narwhal. These 2 creatures are incredibly genetically similar. Their genus is Monodon. Monodon is a genus that contains only 1 species, this species is the narwhal. This creatures Binomial name is Monodon Monoceros. The Fight To Recognize The Narwhal As A True Species That Was Not Mythical The narwhal was not originally recognized as a real species, it was seen as an actual unicorn. This was when it was first discovered in 1557. This caused a delay in studying the creature due to the animal being killed off for the horn. It was believed that the horn had magical properties which prompted the mass hunt of the narwhal in the first place. This leads to modern day society in which a shocking amount of the population still believes that the narwhal is a mythical creature. By taxonomy, however, the narwhal is recognized as an actual species & not some mythical entity. Directories / Credits https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/the-mystery-of-the-sea-unicorn https://us.whales.org/whales-dolphins/species-guide/narwhal/ https://animalia.bio/narwhal https://nammco.no/narwhal/#1475762140566-81d47f7a-a145 Narwhal - Oceana https://www.whalefacts.org/narwhal-facts/ https://animals.mom.com/mating-habits-narwhals-11473.html https://www.sciencefocus.com/news/size-matters-narwhals-long-tusks-help-them-find-a-mate/amp/ https://a-z-animals.com/blog/narwhal-skull-how-its-massive-tusk-connects/ Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa

Ode To Oceanography: An Antique Nautical Chart Of The North Sea   This article is the ninth installment in the Ode To Oceanography series. This series will publish on the 15th of every month, until we run out of antique nautical maps to analyze, though that will not be for many decades. Once that happens, we will keep the series running, but we will change the article format. In these articles, we will take an antique nautical map & analyze it in its entirety. These maps will not strictly be on open oceanic waters, they may be on rivers or occasionally, bays. We will also discuss the methods that may have been used to make the map, considering the period, & the country of origin. These maps will come from a variety of sources, though they will mainly come from Maps Of Antiquity, a wonderful New England map shop. These maps will come from varying time periods, & will not be in any particular historical order. Today’s map up for analysis is an antique chart of the North Sea.   The Map Itself   Since this map is in English, there is no need for translation.  An Analysis Of The Map This map was made originally in 1840, but it was later corrected in 1843. It was made by M. Blachford, & was sold originally by Blachford & Imray. Maps Of Antiquity is currently selling this map. This map was most certainly made in England. The map encompasses the North Sea, also known as the German Sea. The map is positioned in such a way that the coasts of the Netherlands, Denmark, France, Norway, England, Scotland, & the Shetland Islands coastal areas are all visible. This is a sailing map, so there are no reasons for any marine creature zones to be labeled. Since the map has many overlapping lines on the sea area, it is hard to tell whether any islands were left off or not. For this reason, we cannot properly assess the accuracy of this map. This map is most likely in a large collection of European maps by Blachford & Co., but we cannot tell if it is, we can only hypothesize. The map has no weather or tidal patterns displayed on the map either, due to technology at the time not being very reliable at tracking these sorts of things. There are no prominent terrestrial topographical features on the map. This map is uncolored, most likely for simplicity. This map was not made for militia use, & was most likely never used for militaristic purposes. Aside from the northern sea, the map does not Center end on any lighthouse or country in particular. Additionally, no coves are labeled on the map. There are no rapids or dangerous areas labeled directly on the map, for unknown reasons. Due to the time & location of the map making, it was most certainly made using lithography. In the lithographic method, the artist will draw directly onto a printing surface, such as zinc, or copper, until they are satisfied with the drawing. After this, the surface will be covered with a chemical etch, which will bond it to the surface. With this process, the blank areas will attract moisture to the plate & repel the lithographic ink, while the areas that are drawn on will hold the ink. Water is then wiped onto the unpainted areas to help prevent the ink from deviating. After the map wanted is inked, the paper is laid over it & covered with a tympan, & the tympan is pressed down. Finally, these materials pass through the scraper bar of the litho press. Afterward, an exact copy of whatever was supposed to be printed is revealed.   Directories / Credits   All credit for this map analyzed today goes to Maps Of Antiquity, a wonderful New England map shop. To purchase this map, any other maps, or any other cartographic objects, please visit mapsofantiquity.com . To be clear, this is not an advertisement for Maps Of Antiquity, as we do not have a partnership with them.   Strategic Partnerships   Reel Guppy Outdoors   Our Loyal Patrons  Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

Marine Hall Of Distinction: Doctor Malcolm Roy Clarke This article is a part of our collection known as the Marine Hall Of Distinction. It is a different series from our main monthly series & has no connection to the main monthly series. In this special collection, we will discuss marine biologists who we feel have served marine biology & oceanography the most. We do this in order to commemorate these marine biologists & to show gratitude for everything they have contributed to our oceans. This collection has no relation to the main monthly series. This series is published on the 25th of every month, shortly after our article on the oceanic environment of a certain region on the 20th. Today’s marine biologist is Malcolm Roy Clarke. Malcolm Roy Clarke is a British Malacologist, Marine Biologist, & Teuthologist. Born on October 24th, 1930, He began his career as a whale inspector for the British Navy. During this time he worked aboard ships in the Antarctic. He is most well known for his research on cephalopods, & sperm whales. He is known to have been one of the first scientists to extract squid beaks from whale carcasses, in order to study them. For the majority of the 1900s as well as part of the 2000s, he was considered to be the world's foremost expert on cephalopods, & their ecology. He is considered to be one of the founders of Cephalopod International. Dr. Clarke is regarded as one of the greatest cephalopod ecologists, recognized for his dedication & contributions. For all of his work across the fields of general marine biology, malacology, & teuthology, he was awarded a fellowship of the Royal Society. In this article, we will discuss the Early Life & Education of Dr. Malcolm Roy Clarke, The Career & Later Life Of Dr. Malcolm Roy Clarke, & The Awards, Honourables, Accomplishments, & Achievements of Dr. Malcolm Roy Clarke. With that being said, let us delve into this Arctic malacologist. The Early Life & Education Of Malcolm Roy Clarke Malcolm Roy Clarke was born on October 24th, 1930. He was born in Birmingham, located in the western midlands region of England. Unfortunately, absolutely nothing is known about his childhood or his parents. The Later Life & Career Of Malcolm Roy Clarke Malcolm Roy Clarke began his career as a Whale Inspector for the Royal British Navy. During his time as a Whale Inspector, he worked aboard ships in the Antarctic region. This sparked a keen interest in cetaceans, leading him to write his Ph.D. thesis on whale parasites. While working on his thesis, he realized how much information could be recovered from squid beaks if he extracted them from whales. He would go on to extract this information, & while doing so, he would innovate new sampling techniques, & different methods of testing. This would help other naturalists discover a trove of information concerning other animals. Across all available records, it is unclear which year he got his P.hd. It is also unclear whether this was before or after his marriage. In 1953, Dr. Clarke married his wife, Dorothy Clara Knight. They would go on to have a happy marriage, & have 4 children. After he finished his whale inspecting business, he decided to begin working at the Institute of Oceanographic Sciences. He worked at this institution from 1958 to 1972. In that year, he decided to switch to working at the Marine Biological Association Of The United Kingdom. Despite officially retiring in 1981, he would stay with the association until 1987. During his time at the association around 1978, he was awarded a doctorate of science.  Soon after in 1981, he was elected to the Fellowship of the Royal Society. He retired in the year 1981, & purchased a secondary residence in on Pico Island, Portugal. Even though he was retired, his interest in cephalopods did not wane in the slightest. He continued to study various species of squid, as well as examine specimens up close. Astonishingly, He & his wife would open a private sperm whale museum on the island in 2003. This museum is still open, & is thriving. Unfortunately, he passed away on May 10th, 2013, in his second residence on Pico Island. His dedication, & contributions to science will not be forgotten. The Awards, Achievements, Accomplishments, & Honorable Of Malcolm Roy Clarke He had a deep sea anglerfish officially named after him. The species of anglerfish is Oneirodes Clarkei. He authored over 150 scientific articles that were published across a wide array of journals. He was awarded the Fellowship of the Royal Society. He innovated multiple techniques for experimentation that would help other naturalists discover heaps of new information. Directories / Credits Citation No. 1: “Dedication: Malcolm Clarke, his life & work”, Written by Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published By Elsevier. Retrieval Date: February 23rd, 2024. https://cephalopod.files.wordpress.com/2017/03/clarke_obituary.pdf Citation No. 2: “Malcolm Roy Clarke. 24 October 1930 — 10 May 2013”, Written by Peter J. Herring, & Published on the 1st of December, 2014. Published By Royal Society Publishing. Retrieval Date: February 23rd, 2024. https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbm.2014.0011 Citation No. 3: “The role of Malcolm Clarke (1930–2013) in the Azores as a scientist & educationist” ", Written By J.N Gomes-Pereira, R. Prieto, V. Neves, J. Xavier, C. Pham, J. Gonçalves, F. Porteiro, R. Santos, & H. Martins, & Published On July 8th, 2014. Published By the Cambridge University Press. Retrieval Date: February 23rd, 2024. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-the-marine-biological-association-of-the-united-kingdom/article/role-of-malcolm-clarke-19302013-in-the-azores-as-a-scientist-and-educationist/5FCB2DD90B11F4EA51D66861A646B79D Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

The Oceans Surrounding Terre-De-Bas, Guadeloupe This month's article series will discuss... the French isle of Terre-de-Bas. Terre de bas translates from French into English into the words bottomland, lowland, or downland. This is most likely due to the shallow elevation of the island. This island is a part of the tiny archipelago of the Terre Islands. These islands may also be known as the Petite Terre Islands due to their small size, these 2 islands have a combined total land mass of 0.71815 square miles (1.859999961 square kilometer). The Terre Islands directly translated from French into English as the Earth islands or the Land islands. However, the name was possibly not meant to be translated. This island itself as well as the Terre Island Group is a part of the Lesser Antilles & is a part of the municipality of Guadeloupe. Guadeloupe is owned by France as of 2024. A good way to see Guadeloupe on a map is to look for the archipelago that is vaguely shaped like a butterfly. This Island is in the Atlantic Ocean. The island also is a part of the Caribbean Sea. It exists in the Caribbean, being approximately 305.90 Nautical / Marine miles from Venezuela. It is also 1221.59 Nautical / Marine miles from Florida, which is a state of the United States. Terre de bas is so minuscule that is often not featured on maps & nautical maps of it are very scarce. The island is extremely biodiverse as it is very untouched by most humans so its natural environment is healthy. It has many nutrients & marine creatures that surround the island. One of the best examples of these intelligent & unique species is the West Indian Manatee. The previous article to this talks completely & solely about the West Indian manatee & its placement in the marine environment of Terre-De-Bas. The flora of these marine ecosystems is also especially unique. The majority of Terre-De-Bas’s coastal areas have been untouched & left alone by the few locals on the island. The marine ecosystems that are in need of maintenance are receiving it  & many conservation efforts have been made to protect & ensure the complete safety of the marine wildlife. In this article, we will discuss the salinity, temperature,  marine geography & terrain, the most important marine ecosystems, the documented marine flora & fauna, & the utilization of marine resources of the island. With that being said, let us delve into the petite & peaceful island of Terre-De-Bas The Salinity, Tides, Temperatures, Marine Geography, & Basic Information The salinity of the island has not been measured & released to the public domain. Since the island is in the Atlantic, it will most likely have a higher salinity than say the Pacific Ocean or the Indian Ocean. Salt deposits / Brine Pools may be more common around the island due to the higher salinity. However, the existence of brine pools around the island has not been proven. The salinity levels of the Atlantic Ocean at any given time are between 35.5 & 34.5 parts per thousand. Salinity is measured in 1,000 grams of water. For every 1000 grams of water, there will be a certain number of grams that are pure salt. This is how salinity or saline level is measured. There are also no ongoing factors that would lead to the salinity level being altered. The oceanic temperatures around the island can be found on a plethora of websites however the easiest to navigate & the most accurate ones are https://www.seatemperature.org , https://seatemperature.net , https://weather-and-climate.com , & https://seatemperature.info . The tidal chart can also be found on the majority of these websites as well. The tides usually never get over 1.5 meters tall (4.92126 feet) due to the strange placement of Terre-de-bas. The surf is never usually dangerously high.  The riptide also usually never becomes dangerously prominent to the point where it makes swimming a safety hazard. Currents around the island are not randomly forming & the majority of the existing currents do not go closely to the coastal areas. Swimming & scuba diving are incredibly common recreational activities that take place on Terre-de-bas. There is not very polluted water around the island as can be seen by the thriving wildlife & clear water. The deepest oceanic point within 5 Nautical / Marine miles is 5,291.3 feet (1612.78824 meters or 1.61278824 kilometers) deep. The majority of the marine geographic terrain is composed of coral, mud, sand, & rock. Oceanic mounds are not very common around the island. There are no volcanoes that are oceanic in nature that exist in Guadeloupean waters. The closest oceanic volcano is Kick ‘em Jenny which is just north of the Country of Grenada, as well as the Grenadines. There are a total of 47 designated marine protected areas in Guadeloupe as of 2024. Only 1 of which is extremely highly protected & holds much higher penalties for destruction of the area than the 46 other marine protected areas. The Most Prominent Marine Ecosystems Of Terre-De-Bas Coral Reefed Areas Coral reefed areas are usually located around close coastal areas. They can often be seen from the beaches & the piers of Terre-De-Bas. They are often located within 2,000 feet or less of the coast. All coral reefs found around Terre-De-Bas are fringing type rather than Barrier. It is unknown all the coral species around Terre-De-Bas. Unfortunately, the majority of these coral reefs are in horrible conditions. This is due to rising salinity levels, high sedimentation, & an overload of nutrients in the coastal waters which stems from excessive use of fertilizer. Guadeloupe does however have a barrier reef, just in the northern end of the archipelago which is not where Terre-De-Bas exists. Seagrass Bedded Areas There is no specific place where these types of ecosystems are found, this type of ecosystem is incredibly versatile. Many different types of vertebrates & invertebrates are found here. Usually, smaller animals are found here, which makes this ecosystem extremely fragile. Usually, this is an area where animals such as sea horses give birth. It consists mostly of seagrass. It also works as the fish nursery for majority of the fish. The main species of seagrasses around Guadeloupe are Thalassia testudinum (turtle grass),& Syringodium filiform (filament grass). Turtle grass is more prominent & is found as deep as 10 meters (32.8084 feet). Filiment grass, however, makes up the majority of the deeper seagrass meadows. Syringodium Filiform is found as deep as 30 meters (98.4252 feet), this seagrass is usually found further off the coast rather than the other species. Seagrass meadows are also usually found near mangrove forests or are found embellishing coral reefs. Mangrove Forests Mangrove forests are areas where the trees & the ocean connect. This creates a unique ecosystem in which there is shallow brackish water, & lots of roots. The tree roots make a sort of underwater labyrinth for the fish & other creatures to enjoy. Mangrove forests are usually found further inland than mangrove coasts. The ocean usually runs off into these areas. Mangrove forests are especially unique because they have excessive nutrients. This is due to the meeting of the forest organisms & the oceanic organisms. The exact species of these mangrove trees have currently not been released to the public domain. Mangrove Coasts Mangrove coasts are extremely similar to mangrove forests. However, instead of the ocean running off into the mangrove forests, with mangrove coasts the mangrove trees grow directly along the coast. This provides unique shelter for all oceanic species. The mangrove tree species here are the most likely same here are they are in the mangrove forests—however these areas are at extreme threat levels due to the rising oceans. The Documented Marine Flora of Terre-De-Bas There are currently 2 seagrass species known to exist around Terre-De-Bas. These species have been stated in the subsections above. These species are known as Thalassia Testudinum (Turtle grass), & Syringodium Filiform (Filament grass). These grasses are not endemic to Terre-De-Bas & are found throughout the Lesser Antilles. These seagrasses are found in the highest density around the northern most facing side of the island. However, seagrasses aren’t the islands only marine Flora. Many different types of algae surround the island as well. The most prominent type of algae is brown algae, specifically from the genus Sargassum. It is well known for growing around all Caribbean islands & frequently washing up along these isles' shorelines. Sargassum is a a genus that contains most brown macroalgae species. It is unknown the exact amount of brown algae species that occupy Terre-De-Bas. The Documented Marine Fauna of Terre-De-Bas In marine fauna ,Terre-De-Bas is extremely diverse. This is due to the diversity of ecosystems which provide shelter as well as food & large amounts of nutrients. However, there are other contributing factors as to the biodiversity of Terre-De-Bas. Most often creatures will migrate up the lesser Antilles toyear-round find more prey, this makes it so that most creatures will not live year round around Terre-De-Bas. However biodiversity is slowly declining due to the increasing sea levels, decreasing amounts of coral, & mismanagement of wastewater. The best places to see these marine creatures that we speak of are in the areas with coral reefs. The reason for that is due to the majority of the creatures hunting in the coral reefs or living in the coral reefs. There are no known marine species that are endemic specifically to the island of Terre-De-Bas. However, there are some marine endemic species in Guadeloupe. The majority of coral reefs are tino the northern areas of the island. For this article, we will not be counting smaller organisms, or organisms that are in low density around the island. The most prominent marine species that are found around Terre-De-Bas are as follows: Trichechus Manatus (The West Indian manatee), Balaenoptera Acutorostrata (Northern Minke Whale), Balaenoptera Borealis (Sei Whale), Balaenoptera Brydei (Bryde’s whale), Balaenoptera Musculus (Blue Whale), Megaptera Novaeangliae (Humpback Whale), Short-Beaked Common Dolphin (Delphinus Delphis), Fersea Attenuata (Pygmy Killer Whale), Globicephala Macrorhyncus (Short-finned pilot whale), Lagenodelphis Hosei (Frasers Dolphin), Grampus Griseus (Risso’s Dolphin), Orcinus Orca (Killer Whale), Peponocephala Electra (Melon-Headed Whale), Pseudorca Crassidens (False Killer Whale), Stenella Attenuata (Pantropical Spotted Dolphin), Stenella Clymene (Clymene Dolphin), Stenella Coeruleoalba (Striped Dolphin), Stenella Longirostris (Spinners Dolphin), Stenella Frontalis (Atlantic Spotted Dolphin), Steno Bredanensis (Rough-Toothed Dolphin), Tursiops Truncatus (Common Bottlenose Dolphin), Physeter Catodon (Sperm Whale), Kogia Breviceps (Pygmy sperm whale), Kogia Sima (Dwarf Sperm Whale), Mesoplodon Europaeus (Gervais’s Beaked Whale), Ziphius Cavirostris (Cuivers Beaked Whale), Sphyraena Barracuda (Great Barracuda), Chelonia Mydas (Green Sea Turtle), Dermochelys Coriacea (Leatherback turtle), & Finally, Albula Vulpes (Bonefish). How The Marine Resources Of Terre-De-Bas Were Utilized & How It Affected The Marine Environment The marine resources of Terre-De-Bas were most often utilized by commercial fishing & fishing for personal uses. Many edible fish are found around Terre-De-Bas which is what attracts the amount of fishermen. This for obvious reasons, causes the marine species to become less prominent in that area, which will cause many issues. A good example of this was when most of the fish that ate the Crown of Thorns starfish around Tutuila were hunted into local extinction, this then caused the population of the Crown Of Thorns to spike. The Crown Of Thorns then went about eating all the coral which caused a large environmental crisis. Another common use is for eco-tourism which is tourism for the specific purpose of visiting the natural environment. However, this eco-tourism can be unethical at times & lead to pollution & destruction of the natural marine environment. Thankfully, most of the marine resources of Terre-De-Bas have been left alone. This gives Terre-De-Bas the ability to support the mass amount of marine animals that it has today. Directories / Credits https://mpatlas.org/countries/GLP https://www.researchgate.net/publication/285934691_Recent_evolution_of_the_coral_reefs_of_Guadeloupe_and_Saint-_Barthelemy_Islands https://www.cayoli.fr/en/environment/seagrass-meadow/ https://www.researchgate.net/publication_262840512_First_assessment_of_the_diversity_of_coralline_species_forming_maerl_and_rhodoliths_in_Guadeloupe_Caribbean_using_an_integrative_systematic_approach https://www.shelltonewhaleproject.org/en/dauphins-et-baleines-en-guadeloupe/ https://www.atlantisformation-guadeloupe.com/en/m/Discover-the-Cousteau-Marine-Park-its-wildlife-and-outstanding-marine-life_a8.html Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa

The West Indian Manatee Of Terre-de-Bas, Guadeloupe (Trichechus Manatus) This month's article series will discuss... the French isle of Terre-de-Bas. Terre de bas translates from French into English into the words bottomland, lowland, or downland. This is most likely due to the very low elevation of the island. This island is a part of the tiny archipelago of the Terre Islands. The Terre Island directly translates from French into English as the Earth islands or the Land islands. However, the name was possibly not meant to be translated. This island is a part of the lesser Antilles & is a part of the municipality of Guadeloupe. Guadeloupe is owned by France as of 2024. This island is in the Atlantic Ocean. It exists in the Caribbean, being approximately 305.90 Nautical / Marine miles from Venezuela. It is also 1221.59 Nautical / Marine miles from Florida, which is a state of the United States. Terre de bas is so small that is often not featured on maps & nautical maps of it are very scarce. The island is extremely biodiverse as it is very untouched by most humans so its natural environment is healthy. It has many nutrients & marine creatures that surround the island. However, this article is not to talk about the island itself but to speak about one of the most important marine creatures in the sea around it. That creature is the marine organism known as the West Indian Manatee. This animal lives around Guadeloupe & often consumes aquatic plants. They are very closely related to dugongs & this species has multiple subspecies. These manatees are friendly & seem to be curious of humans, their curiosity towards humans leads them to occasionally approach humans in the waters. They are completely harmless & are unable to even consume meat so there is no issue of them attacking someone on purpose even if provoked. They will more often just move out of the way instead of reacting violently. They also swim in a way in which their head may poke out of the water. They do not have gills, & are mammals instead. They breathe air & only breathe through their nostrils. The manatee is a social & somewhat affectionate creature, they are also incredibly gentle towards humans. However, they are still wild so avoid contact with the manatee even if it swims up to you. Being quite lazy creatures, they often can be seen lounging around the water or occasionally consuming the marine flora that they come across. They are herbivorous in diet. Additionally, the reason that they are called West Indian manatees is because they are found throughout the western Indies, they are not found anywhere around India or Asia for that matter. In this article, we will discuss the life of the West Indian Manatee, the mating procedures, tactics, practices, & cycles of the West Indian Manatee, the distribution of the West Indian Manatee, & finally the scientific detailings of the West Indian Manatee. With that being said, let us delve into this loveable & lazy creature.  The Life Of The Indian West Manatee The West Indian manatee was first described by Carl Linnaeus. It was described in 1758 in the book known as the 10th edition of Systema Naturae. It is not said how or where this animal was first found however it can be assumed that it was spotted in the Caribbean or off the coast of Brazil. The largest West Indian manatee grew to be 15 feet (4.572 meters) long, However, it is rare that a manatee gets this long, it is more likely that they will only grow up to 10.5 feet (3.2004 meters) long. The adult female manatees tend to be larger than then the male manatees on average. The females also tend to be heavier than the males in order to support the females while they are pregnant. They often weigh between 990 pounds (449.056 kilograms) & 3,500 pounds (1587.573 kilograms). This is much less compared to their larger ancestor the Steller sea cow. They live approximately 40 years on average in the wild. However the oldest individual was snooty, who lived to be 68 years old. A manatee's level of intellect is incredibly hard to measure because we cannot exactly test them. They have incredible sensory abilities & have hairs all over their body that they use to feel water ripples in the water around them. These hairs are known as vibrissae. They are able to feel emotions & feel love for each other. They all have unique personalities just like humans, they aren’t too far off from us in social & emotional structure. They are able to communicate these emotions by squeaks & vocalizations. They also have advanced long-term memory & can remember as well as recognize humans whom they have formed bonds with. They also can prefer certain humans over others. It is not exactly clear how long this species, in particular, has existed, however, manatees as a whole have existed for approximately 50 million years. Manatees are not territorial & will live in pairs in certain areas of coastal waters. They swim by moving their tails in an up & down motion in order to propel themselves. They may swim at 5 miles per hour while swimming in this way, however, there is another way that they swim. They may do the same motion but instead on quicker bursts, this will get them at speeds up to 15 miles per hour. When they are resting they look as if they are standing straight up on their tails. They rest for up to 12 hours a day & do sleep. They are herbivores & will only consume aquatic flora. They are not cannibalistic in any form. They will eat whenever they feel like it & do not have feeding cycles. They have no natural predators due to the fact that they are incredibly long & that they have so much blubber that they physically cannot be eaten. They use their flexible frontal limbs in order to hold vegetation while they consume it. They also use these limbs to steer around water. They are most often gray in color but can range from black to light brown. Their skin is wrinkled & covered sparsely with vibrissae are sometimes spotted with algae or even barnacles. They have large, heavy, rounded & oval-shaped bodies with paired flippers & a round paddle-shaped tail. The Mating Practices, Procedures, Tactics & Cycles Of The West Indian Manatee West Indian manatees mate via sexual reproduction. They are not monogamous & will mate with a new male or female every season. They do appear to have a particular mating season, this season being from March to November. However, mating is a year-round activity. The female manatees will reach sexual maturity at 3-5 years old. The males may reach maturity as late as 7 years old. They are not hermaphroditic & are unable to change sexes. It is currently unclear as to whether calves are able to be born intersex or not. The females are most fertile at 7-20 years old. The females will reproduce every 2-5 years & will usually only reproduce 1 single calf. Having twins is incredibly rare & dangerous for the mother. The approximate gestation period of a West Indian manatee is 11-12 months. The baby will be born underwater. The calf will stay with the mother for 2 years, during this time the calf will drink milk from its mother. West Indian manatees are able to lactate. The area from which the milk comes out is the nipple which is located just behind the forelimb of the mother. When the mother is ready to mate she will attract the males & form mating herds. The females will also exhibit searching behaviors. These main behavior is dispersing anal gland mucus onto logs or various other objects in order to attract males to her. As many as 20 males will follow the females in the mating herd. They will push & shove each other in order to have a higher chance of mating with the female. They will mate via internal fertilization. This means that the male will use his penis to eject the semen into the female. There are also certain areas where manatees will go specifically when looking for a mate.  The Distribution Of The West Indian Manatee The West Indian manatee is found all throughout the Caribbean. It has been found especially high density throughout the Gulf of Mexico. It is found as far south as northern Brazil & as far north as the US state of Virginia. They prefer warmer water most likely due to there being a higher quantity of algae & seaweed in tropical areas. It is not found on the western side of the Panama Canal. This species does have multiple subspecies however it is not often found in one of the species' primary areas. These subspecies are Trichechus Manatus Manatus (Antillean manatee) & Trichechus Manatus Latirostros. There are no other subspecies of Trichechus Manatus as of 2024. However, this may change.  The Scientific Detailings Of The West Indian Manatee  Manatees are interesting for many reasons, but especially because they only eat aquatic plants yet they grow to about the size of a horse or a dwarf cattle. The reason that they can eat only aquatic flora & still be absurdly large for this is because they have incredibly low bodily fat. The majority of the space in their body is taken up by organs. They do not need very much insulation because they are in a tropical area. This means that they are already warm enough therefore they do not need much protection from the cold. It is scientifically proven that The output of the heat from the food digesting in their body helps manatees avoid being as cold & as affected by the cold in the winter. In conclusion, manatees are not fat at all they just have extremely large organs. This means theoretically by restricting the size of the organs on a manatee that the manatee will be smaller. Even though they are incredibly large they can somersault about the water & go onto land every now & then. They are then able to slip back into the water with ease. They are incredibly agile creatures. This species is classified as Vulnerable under the IUCN red list. A manatee's teeth are short, stubby, blunt, & rounded. This is due to their herbivorous appetite & diet. These teeth are used to grind the plants enough to the point where they are able to swallow it. The teeth are also further toward the back of the jaw as opposed to humans. With age, the individual tooth will also grow 2 notches in it. This will cause the tooth to flatten over time. A manatee will have between 24 & 32 teeth, however, it is usually closer to 28 teeth than 32.  The image above depicts the bodily system of a manatee. As can be seen, they do have individual bones for fingers. This is a remanent of their ancestors, these ancestors would also evolve into elephants. Their leg bones have long disappeared however the arms have not yet become an evolutionary thing of the past. These fingers in their arm-like limbs help them move water about, hold food in place, & many other things. They are extremely flexible, they are somewhat akin to human arms. They also have fingernails which are visible on the outside of the body. They have incredibly short & stubby snouts as well. Remanent bones such as the hyoid bones located near the neck region, are still found in the manatee to this day. These bones are similar to the Adam's apple which is seen in male humans. Researchers have concluded that there is no known use of these bones in the manatee. The manatee has pelvic bones, but they are not attached to its main skeletal frame & are fairly small compared to the rest of the manatee’s skeletal proportions. These pelvic bones are remnants of a time when manatees manatees' ancestors lived on land. The bones are found in a cartilage tissue area of the body in the vicinity of the reproductive organs and the urinary bladder. These bones are soft when the manatee is a juvenile & later harden as they mature, much like knee caps in human juveniles. This is not able to be seen, however, their lungs are approximately 1 meter long, 20 centimeters wide & less than 5 centimeters thick. Their large lungs help them to control their buoyancy. Unlike the majority of mammals, manatees' lungs lay along the spinal cord rather than being inside the ribcage. Manatees do not have external eyelids or eyelashes. Their eye muscles close in a circular motion, akin to an aperture on a camera. Chordata meaning that they developed these 5 characteristics all species under the phylum of Chordata develop 5 similar characteristics either In adulthood or as juveniles. The characteristics that they develop include, a notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, endostyle or thyroid, pharyngeal Slits, & a post-anal tail. Their class is Mammalia. Mammalia is classified by the production of milk by the mother for their child to nurse, a neocortex which is a region of the brain, some capacity for fur or hair, & three middle ear bones. There are currently 6,400 species categorized under the class of Mammalia. Their order is Sirenia. This is an order that holds the majority of all manatees & dugongs as they are closely related. A defining characteristic of this order is the fact that they are all fully herbivorous & they all grow to be incredibly large. Their family is Trichechidae. All surviving species in this family are classified as manatees. There are several extinct genera classified under this family however they do not count for the purpose of this. There are currently 8 species under this family. Their genus is Trichechus. All species classified under this genus are manatees. This genus holds all surviving species of manatees as of 2024. There are currently 5 species classified under this family at this time, However 1 of those species is questionable as to whether it classifies as its species or not. This species Binomial name is Trichechus Manatus. This species has 2 subspecies known as Trichechus Manatus Manatus & Trichechus Manatus Latriostros.  Directories / Credits https://oceana.org/blog/what-you-didnt-know-about-manatees-honor-manatee-awareness-month/ https://myfwc.com/education/wildlife/manatee/facts-and-information/ https:// swimmingwiththemanatees.com/life-expectancy-of-manatee/ https://www.manatee-world.com/manatee-social-structure/ https://www.bioexpedition.com/manatee-communication/ https://riverventures.com/blog/2022/11/5/manatee-qampa-are-manatees-friendly-to-humans?format=amp https://research.ufl.edu/publications/explore/v07n2/manatees.html https://www.nwf.org/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Mammals/West-Indian-Manatee https://nhpbs.org/natureworks/manatee.htm#6 https://animalcorner.org/animals/west-indian-manatee/ https://www.livescience.com/53164-animal-sex-manatees.html http://savethemanatee-archive.org/faq_body_fat.html https://myfwc.com/education/wildlife/manatee/facts-and-information/ Strategic Partnerships  Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ocho

The Documented History & Modern Economic State Of Tutuila, American Samoa In today’s article we will be discussing the long & complicated history behind the American Samoan island of Tutuila. Tutuila is the largest island & the island with the capital in the archipelago of American Samoa. Tutuila is the largest & capital island in the archipelago known as American Samoa. This island is a territory of the United States Of America. It is in the middle of Oceania. It exists as part of the Samoan islands in the central Pacific Ocean. It is incredibly far from the closest continent that is considered mainland. It stands at 17,439.11 nautical miles from the continent of Australia. It is 15,939.46 miles from the country of China. It is also 7,830.43 Nautical miles from Antarctica. This island has changed many hands throughout its history. It is extremely biodiverse & attracts animals from most corners of Polynesia, this is often seen throughout its history. This was also a reason for conflicts between the natives & others. The island itself was formed during the early Pliocene age. This places it at between 5.4 million & 3.4 million years ago. It was formed by a volcanic eruption, it is not clear if this eruption also formed the surrounding islands or not. Its largest settlement is known as Pago Pago, it is the capital of American Samoa. During its last census it had 11,500 people, or 20.581287135801% of the total population on the island. The total population of the island in its last census in 2000 registered as 55,876 people. Its highest elevation is Matafao peak, standing at a mere 653 meters (2142.39 feet). The island is a popular sight for hiking, recreational swimming, surfing, fishing, scuba diving, & snorkelling. These all contribute to the industry of Eco-tourism. The reason for the majority of its scuba diving is due to the beautiful shallow coral reefs off of the coast. Sunken world war 2 relics can also be found off the coast, this is a contributing factor to the large scuba diving / snorkelling industry. These coral reefs are found all around the island. The island also has mountainous regions, which is what makes hiking popular. The oceans surrounding Tutuila are of importance to the legends of the island. These legends will be discussed later in the article. The island is divided into 2 administrative districts, the western & the eastern. The eastern area has 5 counties & so does the western. Even though there are multiple counties, American Samoa has only 1 zip-code, that zip-code is 96799. In this article we will discuss the discovery & documented history of Tutuila as a whole, The known aboriginals of Tutuila, the most destructive man caused & natural disasters of Tutuila, & finally a segment on the American Samoan economy. With that being said, let us delve into the island of Tutuila. The Documented History Of Tutuila Before Colonization Before Colonization by the Europeans, the Polynesians occupied Tutuila along with the rest of Samoa. The Polynesians most likely arrived in 1000 B.C. However it may have been as late as 800 B.C. None the less, By 600 B.C they established a village at the modern day area of Tula. Tula is on the eastern side of Tutuila. There is much evidence to believe that after this point Polynesians still came in & out. The reason for this hypothesis is because the Polynesians on Tutuila managed to keep in contact with the majority of the neighbouring islands. After this point, Tutuila served as a place of exile for the warriors & the chiefs who had been defeated in the wars that ravaged much of Upolu for centuries. It also served as a place for Political Prisoners. Namely Upolu rulers & warriors. After this point unfortunately not much is known about Polynesian activity on the island. However it is believed that this was the first inhabited island of Samoa & from Tutuila they spread to the other samoan islands. After Colonization 18th Century In the year of 1722 Jacob Roggeveen a dutch explorer, visited the island chain that contains Tutuila. He was the first to make European contact with this island chain. From our knowledge he visited the eastern side of the island. However it seems that he did not do much with this information. In the year of 1786 french admiral & explorer Louis Antonie de Bougainville visited the Samoan islands, he called them the Navigator islands. His reasoning for this name in particular is because of his observation of the Polynesians practice of navigating the water in dug out canoes to catch Tuna. Unfortunately after this point there were no major historical events that were recorded on the island. 19th Century During the 1810’s & 1820’s many European whalers & protestant missionaries arrived on the islands. However the majority of them arrived in the 1830’s. In doing so, the whalers severely weakened & disrupted the local whale population. This caused the local whale population to go into near extinction. The most notable of these visitors were sir English missionary John Williams of the London Missionary Society, & french naval officer Louis de Freycinet who arrived in October of 1819. This caused him to rename Tutuila “Rose island”. He named it this after his wife Rose de Freycinet who was a fellow french explorer. European (majority of which were french) settlers & Samoan people chose to develop a village on the island of Upolu instead of further developing Tutuila. This village was named Apia. After they had fully developed Apia, it became their main major trading station. In 1872 the United States Naval Force decided that Tutuilas deep water Pago Pago harbour would be the best place for a refuelling station for the brand new vessel service from San Francisco, CA to Sydney, AU. They decided to negotiate with the natives to make this happen, & they did. After 6 years of negotiations the US congress ratified the treaty. This would go on to be implemented. After such success many other foreign countries became interested in the tiny island. Great Britain & Germany in particular, were expressing their interest in claiming this island. In 1879 the native Samoans said they they would like to trade with all 3 of the countries. This boosted their international relations by a large percentage. The 3 countries then decided to form a Tripartite government over all of the Samoan islands after this. In the year of 1889, the three countries decided to hold a conference in Berlin to discuss the political future of the islands & to attempt to resolve their differences on that topic. The Americans expressed their extreme dissatisfaction with not having government rein over the islands. The countries ongoing differences led to a rather quick proposal in 1899. This proposal proposed to apportion their control among different parts of the Samoan islands that had been occupied. This ended up forming the political territory of American Samoa. The western islands then went under European control. 20th Century The Samoans ended up signing off on the ides to apparition the islands & the flag of the U.S.A was raised on Tutuila on April 17th of 1900. At this time the territory was not called American Samoa, it remained that way until 1911. The proposal was also not officially ratified by U.S congress until 1929. During the 2nd world war Tutuila became extremely convenient due to its close placement to Asia. Led by Colonel Lester A. Dessez, the U.S Marine Corps established a military base on Tutuila as well as erected concrete bunkers along the island’s coast. Despite the island’s strategic importance, it escaped almost unscathed from the war. The only exception being attacked was a launch from a Japanese submarine on January 11th of 1942. Since 1951, administration of Tutuila & the other islands of American Samoa has been the responsibility of the US Department of the Interior. In 1956 Peter Tali Coleman became the first Samoan-born governor of American Samoa. In 1960 during his tenure, protections for the islanders were approved. This included protection from confiscation of their lands & from loss of their cultural practices. After 1960, the official flag of American Samoa was made the territories official flag. In 1961 the US president John Fitzgerald Kennedy , appointed Hyrum Rex Lee as governor of American Samoa & approved US expenditure of massive funds to develop Tutuila. Which throughout the 1960s was used to finance the building of an international airport, seaport facilities, roads, schools, houses, a hospital, a tuna cannery, a modern hotel, and the installation of electricity throughout the country. In 1962, Western Samoa became independent of New Zealand, leading to uncertainty about whether the US would continue to have control of American Samoa. The massive US development efforts during the 1960s served to effectively solidify support for the continuation of Tutuila and the rest of American Samoa as a dependency of the United States. In July of 1997 Western Samoa officially changed its name to just Samoa. The reason for this name change was most likely because it would include the Americans of American Samoa. Modernly, American Samoa is an unincorporated Territory of the United States Of America. It is governed & protected by the Department’s Office of Insular Affairs. American Samoa is primarily divided into two political districts; the Eastern District & The Western District. The western district has 4 counties while the eastern district has 5 counties. The Aboriginals Of Tutuila The Polynesians of Tutuila The Polynesians were a sea migrating group of people who absolutely dominated Oceania before the Europeans came. They would migrate by sea & take over each island. They most likely originated in Taiwan or Vietnam. They had their own languages that were unfortunately, completely lost to time. They developed the majority of their languages between 3,000 & 1,000 B.C. They had their own Polynesian mythology. This religion is still practiced by some Polynesian tribes to this day. This mythology is meant to recount ancient times & the adventures of their gods, which are known as Atua. Their religion also involves traditional tattooing. One of the most interesting of their Atua the atua known as Tāne Mahuta. Tāne Mahuta is the creator of all life, the Sky father, & the earth mother. Tāne Mahuta is male in traditional mythology. He may also be known as Tāne-nui-a-rangi. The Polynesians would often fish around the island & effectively have a system of trade with the fish. They most often caught Tuna & it seems that Tuna was incredibly high value. The ancient Polynesians would cultivate Taro, sweet potato, banana, coconut, & breadfruit. This along with seafood & a few other meats would compose an ancient Polynesians diet. They made canoes from the trees on Tutuila, as Tutuila is incredibly densely wooded. They also developed their own navigational system. This system was developed to utilize the stars & the clouds in order to guide them. The Polynesians from this area most likely migrated from Taiwan to Papua New Guinea, Then from Papua New Guinea to Vanuatu, Them from there to Tutuila. Overall, Polynesians migrated all throughout Oceania & to southern parts of Asia. They migrated in a pattern that is a kin to a triangle. This pattern is now officially known as the Polynesian Triangle. However it will never truly be known the exact way they they dispersed. There are currently 3 major models as to how they could have dispersed throughout the Pacific. The first settlement that they built on the island was Tula. This village still exists to this day. They did have a chief system & a type of organized government system. This strong system was heavily influenced & made by 2 early female chiefs. These chiefs were Nafanua & Salamasina. This system was heavily matriarchal. It seems they also were a very social society, as they would often have many festivals & celebrations. The Most Destructive Natural & Man-Caused Disasters That Have Affected Tutuila No. 1 Tropical Cyclone Val Tropical cyclone Val was a Tropical Cyclone in the Pacific ocean. It lasted from the dates of December 4th 1991 to December 17th 1991. It affected the majority of Eastern Oceania. It caused a total of 17 direct & indirect fatalities. This storm was also the direct cause of multiple chemical spills around the island. It’s highest wind speed 1 minute sustained was 145 miles per hour (233.355 kilometers). Its lowest recorded pressure is 940 mbar. It caused 381 million USD in damages for all countries. Adjusted for modern inflation that would be 832,803,898.68 or 832 Million dollars. No. 2009 Samoa Earthquake & Tsunami The 2009 Samoan Earthquake & tsunami took place on the 29th of September. It was set off by an 8.1 magnitude earthquake. It then set off a tsunami due to the earthquake originating from the ocean. It affected the majority of Polynesia & Oceania. It went as far south as New Zealand & as far north as San Francisco bay. It did slightly affect the bay area. This caused a total of 189 confirmed fatalities on all countries. No. 3 Crown Of Thorns Outbreak (Environmental Disaster) This was an environmental catastrophe of the Crown Of Thorns spreading at a rapid uncontrollable pace. The crown of thorns is a type of starfish that has long spikes that protrude out of its body & appendages. When it was released near Tutuila, it caused absolute havoc. It grew over the coral & prevented it from sucking in nutrients. This caused approximately 90 percent of all Tutuilan coral to die within a few years. Luckily, this issue is being addressed & resolved by way of releasing certain fish who will consume the crown of thorns. The Economic State Of Tutuila / American Samoa The economy of American Samoa is rather stable as of 2024. It did take somewhat of a hit during 2020 due to the lack of tourism however since tourism isn’t their only industry they recovered alright. Their GDP is approximately 709 million USD. Their GDP rank is 187th Nominal.Their gdp per capita is 12,844.90 USD. They use USD has their currency on American Samoa & do not seem to accept any other currency. Their largest industries as of 2024 are tuna fishing, tuna canning, & handicrafts. Their current labor force is 17,630. Their unemployment rate is 8.36% of the population or 4,606.6108 people as the total population of American Samoa is 55,103. Their labor force by occupation is 34% agriculture (5994.2 persons), 33% manufacturing (5817.9 persons) & 33% services (5817.9 persons). Their main export partners were Indonesia, Australia, Japan, & Samoa. Their publicly traded stock markets are the New York Stock Exchange & Nasdaq. The average fair market price for a 1 bedroom apartment on American Samoa is 568 USD per month, for a 2 bedroom it is 748 USD per month, for a 3 bedroom it is 1,079 USD per month, for a 4 bedroom it is 1,147 USD per month. Directories / Credits Stanley, David (2004). Moon Handbooks South Pacific . David Stanley. p. 475 . ISBN 978-1-56691-411-6 . Retrieved December 18, 2010. “Report on Hurricane Val in American Samoa.” ^ a b c d e f g h i j k "Islands of American Samoa (United States)" . Tutuila (391). UN System-Wide Earthwatch Web Site . Retrieved November 24, 2010. ^ Krämer, Augustin (2000). The Samoa Islands. University of Hawaii Press. Page 423. ISBN 9780824822194 . ^ Stanley, p.480 ^ a b c d e Dragicevich, Peter; Craig McLachlan (2009). Lonely Planet Samoa & Tonga . Lonely Planet. pp. 84–85. ISBN 978-1-74104-818-6 . Retrieved December 18, 2010. ^ a b c d e f g David Stanley (1985). South Pacific handbook . David Stanley. pp. 230–. ISBN 978-0-918373-05-2 . Retrieved 21 December 2010. ^ Va'a, Unasa L.F. "Aspects of Western Sāmoa Migration to American Sāmoa" (PDF). The Journal of Sāmoan Studies. 3: 1. ^ a b c d e f g Brij V. Lal; Kate Fortune (2000). The Pacific Islands: an encyclopedia . University of Hawaii Press. pp. 560–. ISBN 978-0-8248-2265-1 . Retrieved 21 December 2010. ^ a b "Tutuila: Eastern District and Western District" . United States Census Bureau. Retrieved December 19, 2010. ^ Hills, J.W. (2010). O upu muamua i le Tala i le Lalolagi mo e ua faatoa a'oa'oina u lea mataupu: Elementary Geography. Nabu Press. Page 60. ISBN 9781147952896 . ^ a b c "Travel distance calculator between cities" . Map Crow. Retrieved December 19, 2010. ^ a b c Holly Hughes, Alexis Lipsitz Flippin, Julie Duchaine, Sylvie Murphy (2009). Frommer's 500 Extraordinary Islands . Frommer's . p. 86. ISBN 978-0-470-50070-5 . ^ The Nautical magazine . Fisher, Son & Co. 1840. p. 754. Retrieved December 19, 2010. ^ Google Maps (Map). Google. ^ Bing Maps (Map). Microsoft and Harris Corporation Earthstar Geographics LLC. ^ a b "Economy of American Samoa" . Nation Master Encyclopedia. Retrieved December 19, 2010. ^ a b c d "Effect of Cyclone Val on areas proposed for inclusion in the National Park of American Samoa" (PDF). A report to the U.S. National Park Service. Botany.hawaii.edu . pp. 3–4. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 4, 2012. Retrieved December 18, 2010. ^ a b c d Dragicevich, p.88 ^ "FEMA posts 11 disaster declarations for territory over last 40 yrs" . Samoanews. November 4, 2010. Archived from the original on July 17, 2011. Retrieved December 18, 2010. ^ Ward, R. Gerard; Paul Ashcroft (1998). Samoa: mapping the diversity . editorips@usp.ac.fj . pp. 17–21. ISBN 978-982-02-0134-7 . Retrieved December 17, 2010. ^ "Fagatele Bay Marine Sanctuary" . Research and Monitoring. Official Site of the Fagatele Bay National Marine Sanctuary. Archived from the original on October 28, 2010. Retrieved December 17, 2010. ^ Stanley, pp. 475–477 ^ Stanley, pp. 479–481 https://www.doi.gov/emergency/factsheets/american-samoa-earthquake-and-tsunami-damage https://www.usgs.gov/centers/pcmsc/science/preliminary-analysis-2009-samoa-tsunami http://itic.ioc-unesco.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1657&Itemid=2824 https://www.britannica.com/place/Tutuila Island https://www.iexplore.com/articles/travel-guides/australia-and-south-pacific/american-samoa/history-and-culture https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/genetic-study-maps-when-and-how-polynesians-settled-the-pacific-islands-180978733/ https://dbpedia.org/page/Cyclone_Val https://inis.iaea.org/search/search.aspx?orig_q=RN:24069505 https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/news/2009-Samoa-Tsunami https://www.usgs.gov/centers/pcmsc/science/preliminary-analysis-2009-samoa-tsunami https://www.nps.gov/npsa/learn/news/crown-of-thorns.htm https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/news/may15/crown-of-thorns.html https://www.bea.gov/data/gdp/gdp-american-samoa https://www.economy.com/american-samoa/indicators https://www.rentdata.org/states/american-samoa/2020 Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa

Marine Biological Hall Of Distinction: Dr. Samuel Stillman Berry This article is a part of our collection known as the Marine Hall Of Distinction. It is a different series from our main monthly series & has no connection to the main monthly series. In this special collection, we will discuss marine biologists who we feel have served marine biology & oceanography the most. We do this in order to commemorate these marine biologists & to show gratitude for everything they have contributed to our oceans. This collection has no relation to the main monthly series. This series is published on the 25th of every month, shortly after our article on the oceanic environment of a certain region on the 20th. Today’s marine biologist is Dr. Samuel Stillman Berry. Doctor Samuel Stillman Berry is an American Malacologist, Horticulturist, Zoologist, Teuthologist, & Marine Biologist. Berry was born in the year 1887, in Maine. From a young age, he was fascinated with scientific discovery. This is illustrated in that in 1903, at the age of sixteen, he repeatedly wrote to the Division of Mollusks in the Smithsonian Archives. In these letters, he would request various publications. Throughout his life, he published an astounding 209 articles, & described approximately 401 species of molluscs. The only official position he held throughout his career, was as a Librarian & Research Assistant at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, located in La Jolla, California. Aside from this, he was an independent academic. The majority of these articles were published independently, making this feat all the more remarkable. In this article, we will discuss the Early Life & Education of Dr. Samuel Stillman Berry, The Career & Later Life Of Dr. Samuel Stillman Berry, & The Awards, Honourables, & Achievements of Dr. Samuel Stillman Berry. With that being said, let us delve into this malacologist. The Early Life & Education Of Dr. Samuel Stillman Berry Samuel Stillman Berry was born on March 16th, 1887, in the town of Unity, Maine. He was born to settlers Ralph, & Evelyn Crie Berry. He spent much of his youth moving between Minneapolis, Phoenix, Pasadena, Oakland, San Francisco, & Winnecooke. His constant movement was due to his mother attempting to find an area that would be best for his fragile health. At the age of 10, he moved with his parents, along with 2 cousins, to Redlands, California. He would go on to become a permanent citizen of California, though he would maintain close connections with his extended family. As explained in the introduction, as a young man, he became interested in the pursuit of scientific discovery. He began collecting books about marine biology & horticulture, & would go on to amass a private research library of over 40,000 titles. He published his first article in the year 1906, titled “Note on a New Variety of Cerithidea sacrata Gld.” in the Nautilus. That same year, he entered Stanford University for a Bachelor’s degree in Zoology. He graduated from Stanford University in the year 1909, & would quickly pursue a master's degree at Harvard University. He graduated with his master's degree shortly after, in 1910 In 1911, his father would unfortunately pass away. For this reason, he began looking after Winnecooke Ranch. In the same year, he was elected to the board of directors of the ranch. pursued his Doctorate from Stanford University once more, & graduated in 1913.  The Career & Later Life Of Dr. Samuel Stillman Berry In January of 1913, he became employed at the Scripps Institute of Oceanography. His position was as a Librarian & as a research assistant. He was recommended for employment here by the institute's director, William Emerson Ritter, by his advisor at Stanford, Charles Henry Gilbert. At the institute, he mainly worked on organizing scientific papers, & not much scientific work directly. During his time at the institute, & part of the time prior, Berry became interested in Horticulture. His primary focus was on the hybridization of irises & daffodils, though he was known to have grown peonies, pansies, gladioli, & a few different kinds of small trees at his private residence. The majority of this was in an effort to develop varieties of these plants that would fare well in the natural California climate. At the institute, Berry was not satisfied & combined with his desire to return to Redlands, he decided to stop working as a librarian in 1916, & instead switched his duties to a Non-Resident Research Zoologist. In this role, he studied the institutions' cephalopod collection, & produced a collection of reports on them. In the year 1917, he was elected president of the company holding Winnecooke Ranch, & would keep this title until his unfortunate passing. He would stop his duties at the institute in the year 1918, & become completely independent. Over the rest of his life, he would publish approximately 209 articles, primarily on chitons, cephalopods, & snails. Additionally, he published an unknown amount of horticultural articles, & reviews on horticultural books. During the Great Depression, he would start a horticultural business, & supply new as well as rare varieties of plants to customers. He would stop his horticultural business in the Late 1940s, & transition it back to a pastime. The majority of his malacological articles were first published in his journal, Leaflets on Malacology. He started Leaflets On Malacology in the year 1946, & ran it until 1969. He would publish approximately 26 editions of it. In order to properly recognize all of his contributions to the field of malacology & teuthology, Berry was elected as the only Honorary Life President of the American Malacological Union, the lifetime President of the American Association For the Advancement of Science, & the only Honorary Member of the Cephalopod International Advisory Council. Berry would unfortunately pass away in the year 1984, at the age of 97. His contributions to the field of malacology will not be forgotten.  The Awards, Honourables, Achievements, & Accomplishments Of Samuel Stillman Berry 1. He has named approximately 409 species of cephalopod.  2. He amassed a total of 40,000 books in his private research library.  3. He published 209 articles throughout his life.  Directories / Credits Citation No. 1: “Record Unit 7335”, Written by Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published By the Smithsonian Institute Archives. Retrieval Date: January 20th, 2024. https://siarchives.si.edu/collections/siris_arc_217491 Citation No. 2: “Berry, Samuel Stillman (P.hd) Photographs”, Written By Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by Conchology. Retrieval Date: January 20th, 2024.  https://www.conchology.be/?t=9001&id=12831 Citation No. 3: “Samuel Stillman Berry (1887-1984)”, Written By Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published By Bionity. Retrieval Date: January 20th, 2024. https://www.bionity.com/en/encyclopedia/Samuel_Stillman_Berry.html Strategic Partnerships  Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa