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The Oceans Surrounding Santa Rosa Island, California In today’s article, we will be delving into the Oceans Surrounding Santa Rosa Island. Santa Rosa Island is a relatively small island approximately 26 miles off the coast of Santa Barbara, South Central California. It is the second largest island in the Channel Islands Archipelago of California. The island is approximately 83.12 square miles (215.27981 square kilometers) in area.  Despite being so large, the island has a minuscule population of 2 people, making for an extremely low population density of 0.024061597690087 square miles (0.009290234880828 square kilometers). The island is well known for its beautiful hiking trails, rolling hills, deep canyons, & mesmerizing coastline. Many tidepools are located along its coastline, which are frequently explored by curious visitors. The lagoons near the island are often used as whale nurseries, & dolphin nurseries for young dolphins. Overall, the oceans surrounding Santa Rosa Island are incredibly biodiverse, housing over 100 endangered animals, & serving as a breeding ground for many more.  In addition to the dolphins who frequent the area, Sharks are also fairly common. Both adult & juvenile great white sharks can be seen off the coast of the island, frolicking around in the waters & hunting for food.  The island is also diverse in its terrestrial ecosystems, being home to many endangered plant & animal species. Torrey’s Pine, a critically endangered species of Pine Tree is known to grow on the island. This species of tree is theorized to have approximately 1,000 individual trees growing on the island. Apart from this species of tree, there are approximately 6 plants that are endemic to the island, meaning that they are not found in any other place on Earth.  In this article, we are going to discuss the salinity, tides, temperatures, marine geography, & depth of the oceans surrounding Santa Rosa Island, the most prominent marine environments of Santa Rosa Island, the marine flora & fauna of Santa Rosa Island, how ocean acidification & rising oceanic temperatures are affecting Santa Rosa Island. With that being said, let us delve into the gorgeous blue coves of Santa Rosa Island.  The salinity, tides, temperatures, marine geography, & depth of the oceans surrounding Santa Rosa Island  Unfortunately, the salinity of the oceans surrounding Santa Rosa Island has not been measured before, however, it can be assumed that it falls between the numbers of 32 parts per thousand, & 36 parts per thousand, as the seawater in this area of the Pacific Ocean generally falls between those figures. Salinity is measured in 1000-gram increments of water, & for every 1000 grams of water, a certain amount is salt. This measurement is called Parts Per Thousand, or Practical Salinity Units. There are not many known brine pools around Santa Rosa Island, nor are there many oceanic salt deposits.    The tidal charts for the areas around the isle can be found on a plethora of websites, a few of which are: https://www.tideschart.com , https://www.tide-forecast.com , https://www.usharbors.com , & https://www.tidetime.org . The tides in the area typically don’t reach over 6.94 feet (2.115312 meters) high, & don’t reach below -2.34 feet (-0.713232 meters). The oceanic temperature charts can be found on similar web pages, such as: https://www.tideschart.com , https://seatemperature.info , & https://www.surf-forecast.com . Using these charts, the average yearly oceanic temperature is approximately 59.841666666667 Fahrenheit (15.46759259259278 Celsius).  Using a wetsuit guide, swimmers should use a 7-millimeter thick full wet suit or an 8-millimeter semi-dry suit. Swimming is not a common activity around the island, as it is extremely cold & rip currents may present a danger to swimmers. For similar reasons kayaking as well as surfing is very difficult & somewhat dangerous around the island, & should only be done by those who are well experienced. The sea-caves around the island are prone to quickly filling with water at all hours of the day, & the weather as well as currents can be unpredictable.  Tourism is not very popular on the island, & is almost always done for the island’s oceanic or terrestrial ecosystems.  As the island is a part of a marine reserve, it is not very polluted. Littering is strictly forbidden around the island.  The deepest oceanic point within a 5-mile radius of Santa Rosa Island is toward the south of the island, & is approximately 1,589.9 feet (484.60152 meters) deep. Additionally, the seafloor is largely composed of compressed sand, gravel, shell, mud, & rock. There are no known large sea mounts around Santa Rosa Island, & there are no extreme oceanic drop-offs apart from near the shoreline.  Parts of the island are a part of what is known as the Channel Islands National Marine Reserve. This means that the island is highly biologically protected, & activities that damage or otherwise harm the environment are strictly prohibited & penalized accordingly.  The Most Prominent Marine Environments Of Santa Rosa Island  Ecosystem Type No. 1: Seagrass Meadows Seagrass meadows are large patches of seagrass that oxygenate the water & provide shelter for marine organisms. These meadows are incredibly important to the oceanic ecosystem, as they provide a food source, an oxygen source, & shelter simultaneously. These areas are commonly used by fish & mollusks alike to spawn their eggs, as the seagrass provides a safe area for their hatchlings. These seagrass meadows may be composed of 1 species of seagrass, or be composed of multiple species depending on their depth. Typically, these meadows can be found from 0.25 to 190 feet (0.0762 meters to 57.912 feet) deep.    Ecosystem Type No. 2: Intertidal Zones & Tide Pools An intertidal zone is an area of coastline that is exposed to air at low tide, & is covered with water at high tide. It is a very important location for many small marine animals, such as gastropods, crustaceans, & bivalves. Many animals will take advantage of the nutrients & microorganisms that come in with the high tide. Tide pools are a kind of rock formation located in the intertidal zone, in which water becomes trapped to form a small pool. These pools generally have species from the phyla Echinodermata & Mollusca in them. Ecosystem Type No. 3: Sea Caves Sea caves are a kind of rock formation that embellish the coastline of Santa Rosa Island. The sea caves around Santa Rosa Island are usually only partially filled with seawater, & instead of being completely submerged. For this reason, kayakers will occasionally attempt to go through these sea caves, despite the danger of the cave being suddenly submerged. Fauna in these caves can vary, however they are often home to eels, turtles, sponges, shrimp, bivalves, anemones, urchins, crabs, sea stars, barnacles, & fish.  The Marine Flora Of Santa Rosa Island  Santa Rosa Island is home to a variety of marine flora, such as eelgrass, giant kelp, & bullwhip kelp. Zostera marina (Eelgrass / Seawrack) is the most common species of seagrass that grows around Santa Rosa Island. This species is a true seagrass, meaning that it grows directly on the ocean floor.  It is extremely recognizable as it has bright green blades. They generally have long blades that average 1 meter (3.28084 feet) long. The blade is often between 0.5 (0.19685 inches) & 1 centimeter (0.393701 inches) thick. This species of seagrass is most often found on the coast as it grows along muddy & sandy shorelines. This seagrass is also most commonly found in marshes, which is likely why it is such a popular food among wading birds. Additionally, this seagrass is extremely important to preventing erosion, & to fish spawning. When they grow, they create dense patches that will shield the coastline from harsh currents, thus preventing the currents from affecting coastal buildings & shorelines.  The Marine Fauna Of Santa Rosa Island  Santa Rosa Island has a very diverse range of marine fauna. With animals ranging from northern elephant seals to orca’s, to brittle stars, Santa Rosa Island truly has a unique marine landscape. The island is home to many fish, such as the California sheephead, giant sea bass, lingcod, & large calico bass.  Due to the migratory nature of many of the island creatures, conducting a marine animal survey is very difficult to do accurately. For this reason, we cannot provide a comprehensive list or guide of the marine animals that inhabit the area around the island.  How Oceanic Acidification & Rising Oceanic Temperatures Are Affecting Santa Rosa Island  Ocean acidification is a phenomenon in which the pH level in the ocean decreases, causing a higher level of acidity. Oceanic Acidification is caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.  Atmospheric carbon dioxide levels have increased, largely because of human-caused burning of fossil fuels, & deforestation, for the past 150 years.  When carbon dioxide contacts sea water, it forms carbonic acid.  Carbonic acid gives off positive H+ ions, which causes increased oceanic H+ concentrations & decreased oceanic Ph. When the ocean has decreased Ph, it creates a more acidic environment, which is extremely hostile to many marine species. These conditions will eat at the shells of bivalves, stress out & eventually bleach coral, & utterly destroy seagrass patches. Although it is not clear if Ocean Acidification is currently affecting Santa Rosa Island, this phenomenon paints a very grim & uninviting future for all marine life.    Directories / Credits Citation No. 1: “Wetsuit thickness & temperature guide”, Written By Mark Evans, & Published On April 24th, 2023, at 3:05 PM. Published By Scuba Divers Magazine. Retrieval Date: July 1st, 2024. https://www.scubadivermag.com/wetsuit-thickness-and-temperature-guide/#Scuba_diving_wetsuits   Citation No. 2: “South Point Marine Reserve/Federal Reserve”, Written by Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by the California Department of Fish & Wildlife. Retrieval Date: July 1st, 2024. https://wildlife.ca.gov/Conservation/Marine/MPAs/South-Point/lc/579187/lcv/s/South%20Point%20Santa%20Rosa%20Island   Strategic Partnerships  Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler   Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

Ode To Oceanography: A Chart Of The Bay Of Bengal This is the thirteenth article in our Ode to Oceanography Series. This series will publish on the 15th of every month, until we run out of antique nautical maps to analyze, though that will not be for many decades. Once that happens, we will keep the series running, but we will change the article format. In these articles, will take an antique nautical map & analyze it in its entirety. These maps will not strictly be on open oceanic waters, they may be on rivers or occasionally, bays. We will also discuss the methods that may have been used to make the map, considering the time period, & the country of origin. These maps will come from a variety of sources, though they will mainly come from Maps Of Antiquity, a wonderful New England map shop. These maps will come from varying time periods, & will not be in any particular historical order. Today’s map, is an antique map of the Bay of Bengal. The Bay of Bengal is a part of the Indian Ocean, that is located between India, & the Indochinese peninsula. The Bay Of Bengal Region is approximately 838,600 square miles (2,171,964.03 square kilometers). The chart itself is in fair condition, but it does have some moisture damage on the corners. Additionally, it has some a large crease in the center, & a small crease towards the side of the map. The map is approximately 39.5 inches long, & 50 inches wide. In this article we will discuss the map itself, the translation of certain sections of the map, & a surface level analysis on this antique nautical map. With that being said let us delve into the Bay of Bengal.  The Chart Itself Since this map was made & designed in English, there is no need for translation. The map is very detailed & uncoloured, with no writing smudged. The map is centered on the Bay of Bengal.  The map has the various names of settlements that are in the Bay of Bengal, as well as all the island chains that are in the Bay. This map is very accurate, & very few islands are left off of it. The map does not have any oceanic depths, or oceanic features labelled.  An Analysis Of The Chart  This map was Published in 1873, by Scottish Hydrographers, James Imray &  James Frederick Imray. James Imray was the father of James Frederick Imray. The map was made & published in London. This map was made available for purchase by Maps of Antiquity. It is unclear whether or not the map is a part of any particular collection. This map was made privately, & was not used for military purposes. Considering the time & the person that this was made by, the map was most certainly made by Lithography. There are extremely few other methods that it would have been made with, & lithography was the cheapest & fastest way to produce maps at the time. In the lithographic method, the artist will draw directly onto a printing surface, such as zinc, or copper, until they are satisfied with the drawing. After this, the surface will be covered with a chemical etch, which will bond it to the surface. With this process, the blank areas will attract moisture to the plate & repel the lithographic ink, while the areas that are drawn on will hold the ink. Water is then wiped onto the unpainted areas to help prevent the ink from deviating. After the map wanted is inked, the paper is laid over it & covered with a tympan, & the tympan is pressed down. Finally, these materials pass through the scraper bar of the litho press. Afterwards, an exact copy of whatever was supposed to be printed is revealed. Directories / Credits All credit for this map analyzed today goes to Maps Of Antiquity, a wonderful New England map shop. To purchase this map, any other maps, or any other cartographic objects, please visit mapsofantiquity.com . To be clear, this is not an advertisement for Maps Of Antiquity, as we do not have a partnership with them.  Strategic Partnerships  Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

The Northern Elephant Seal of Santa Rosa Island, California (Mirounga angustirostris) This month's article series will be about the gorgeous isle of Santa Rosa Island, California. Santa Rosa Island is a relatively small island approximately 26 miles off the coast of Santa Barbara, South Central California. It is the second largest island in the Channel Islands Archipelago of California. The island is approximately 83.12 square miles (215.27981 square kilometers) in area. Despite being so large, the island has a minuscule population of 2 people, making for an extremely low population density of 0.024061597690087 square miles (0.009290234880828 square kilometers). The island is well known for its beautiful hiking trails, rolling hills, deep canyons, & mesmerizing coastline. Many tidepools are located along its coastline, which are frequently explored by curious visitors. The lagoons near the island are often used as whale nurseries, & dolphin nurseries for young dolphins. Overall, the oceans surrounding Santa Rosa Island are incredibly biodiverse, housing over 100 endangered animals, & serving as a breeding ground for many more. One of the animals using the isle as a breeding ground is the Northern Elephant Seal. The Northern Elephant Seal is a species of Elephant Seal found along the western coast of North America, from Alaska to Baja California. They are well known for their large snouts, which are used to make extremely loud roaring noises. Male Elephant Seals are enormous, & are far larger than the females. In this article, we shall discuss the Discovery & Life Of The Northern Elephant Seal, The Mating Habits, Practices, Procedures, Techniques, Tactics, & Strategies Of The Northern Elephant Seal, The Distribution Of The Northern Elephant Seal, & the Scientific Detailings Of The Northern Elephant Seal. With that being said, let us delve into the Northern Elephant Seal. The Discovery & Life Of The Northern Elephant Seal  Northern Elephant Seals were discovered by Theodore Nicholas Gill, an American ichthyologist, librarian, malacologist, naturalist, zoologist & mammalogist. He described this species in 1866. Mature males are able to grow up to 13 feet long, & weigh up to 4,400 pounds (1995.806 kilograms). Males are far larger than females, with the females only growing up to 10 feet long & weighing up to 1,300 pounds (589.6701 kilograms). Males have a far higher amount of body fat as well, making them far more cumbersome. Individuals have a fair life span, lasting between 13 & 19 years. Their intelligence level is unmeasured, however, they are believed to be extremely intelligent. Individuals are able to differentiate between 2 separate humans in the wild & in captivity. Additionally, they are able to exhibit affectionate behaviors towards humans they particularly like. Both adult & baby Northern Elephant Seals have a natural curiosity towards humans, & an inquisitiveness about the world. In the wild, they tend not to interact with humans. Under Federal Law, it is illegal for any unauthorized humans to harass, touch, or harm a Northern Elephant Seal in a way that would alter its natural behavior. They are aggressive towards humans both provoked & unprovoked, & are known to make loud roaring noises to warn humans against attacking them. Males are incredibly territorial, & will defend their areas through loud vocalizations, & violence against other Northern Elephant Seals. Apart from breeding, they are generally not social creatures. the average diet of a Northern Elephant Seal consists of Squid, Small Fish, Rays, & Sharks. They are not cannibalistic at any stage in their lives. Due to their large size, there are very few animals physically capable of predating upon them. To maintain their weight, they must consume 120 to 270 pounds (54.4311 to 122.47 kilograms) of food per day. They are active predators, & locate food through sight. This species is equipped with extremely large eyes, that are able to detect movement & light more easily than most other seal species. Individuals are nocturnal hunters, & heavily rely on bioluminescent light from their prey to hunt. The only animals known to predate upon them are Orcas, & Great White Sharks. Individuals are able to swim up to 10 miles per hour, & will swim 15,000 to 20,000 miles per year. Their cruising speed is usually much lower than 10 miles per hour, to conserve fuel. They swim by pushing themselves forward with their tail fins, & then gliding underwater until they have slowed down, & need to speed up again. They remain buoyant through their thick layer of fat, known as blubber. They are fairly agile animals while in the ocean, being able to skilfully traverse the water column. On land, however, they are very slow & cumbersome. Individuals are able to sleep by turning off half of their brains, & finding a comfortable area to sleep on land. While they also sleep underwater, they spend a considerable amount of time sleeping on land. Female Northern Elephant Seals are light silver in color, with a more streamlined body than their male counterparts. They have dark grey or black whiskers, with large black eyes & small snouts. Males are very bulbous, with large elephant-like snouts. They are also silver in color, with slightly smaller eyes, & large flippers. As of 2026, they are categorized as Least Concern by the IUCN Red List, meaning that they are not endangered. Their population is actively increasing, painting a hopeful future for the Northern Elephant Seal. There are between 110,000 & 220,000 mature Northern Elephant Seals at any given time.  The Mating Habits, Practices, Procedures, Techniques, Tactics, & Strategies Of The Northern Elephant Seal Northern Elephant Seals breed via sexual reproduction. They have 2 distinct sexes, & are not naturally hermaphroditic. Their mating system is Polygamous, with Male Northern Elephant Seals having a harem of 5 to 50 females. Males will reach sexual maturity at 10 years of age, which is when they will begin battling other males for dominance. Their breeding season is from December 15th through March 31st, in which much violence will occur. After coming of breeding age, the males will begin calling out a mating song for females. Females will become attracted to this male, & join his harem. A male will protect his harem as well as his pups fiercely. The male has an extremely intense drive to copulate each season, & will in extreme cases as many as 250 pups each year. The gestation period for the pups is between 7 & 11 months long. The mother will forage at sea for the majority of her pregnancy, before returning to shore to mate. She will give birth to a single pup, who she will nurse for 4 weeks until they are able to consume solid foods. The pup is then abandoned by its mother, to fend for itself. Unfortunately, only 50% of pups will survive the first year, with even fewer surviving to maturity.  The Distribution Of The Northern Elephant Seal Northern Elephant Seals are found from the Aleutian Islands to Baja California. Their primary breeding colonies are in the Channel Islands off the Coast of California. They spend the majority of their lives at sea, & only visit land to breed, molt, or give birth. They are known to dive extremely deep into the ocean to hunt, however they spend the majority of their time in shallow water.    The Scientific Detailings Of Northern Elephant Seal Northern Elephant Seals possess 30 different sharp teeth, useful for tearing their prey apart. Similar to Humans, Northern Elephant Seals deal with many different kinds of parasites. The most common Parasite found in this species is the nematode Otostronglyus circumlitis, which parasitizes the lungs. It is a significant cause of death amongst adult elephant seals off the coast of California, & is unfortunately very common.  Their phylum is Chordata, meaning that they developed these 5 characteristics all species under the phylum of Chordata develop 5 similar characteristics either In adulthood or as juveniles. The characteristics that they develop include, a notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, endostyle or thyroid, pharyngeal Slits, & a post-anal tail.  Their clade is Pinnpedia. Pinnipeds are a heavily distributed & extremely diverse clade of semiaquatic species & marine mammals. They are part of the family known as  Phocidae. Animals categorized under Phocidae are essentially earless seals, which means that they do not have ear flaps / coverings, & they do not have any distinguishable ear that can be seen unless you are incredibly up close or using instruments to help. Their genus is Mirounga, which encompasses all Elephant Seals. Their binomial name is Mirounga Angustirostris.  Directories / Credits Citation No. 1: “Northern Elephant Seal”, Written by Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by the Marine Mammal Center. Retrieval Date: June 5th, 2024.  https://www.marinemammalcenter.org/animal-care/learn-about-marine-mammals/pinnipeds/northern-elephant-seal Citation No. 2: “How Much Do Seals Eat In A Day”, Written by Sandra King, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by Pets on Mom. Retrieval Date: June 5th, 2024.  https://animals.mom.com/much-seals-eat-day-11423.html Citation No. 3: “An Elephant Seal’s Deep Dive”, Written by Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by Friends of the Elephant Seal. Retrieval Date: June 5th, 2024.  https://elephantseal.org/an-elephant-seal-deep-dive/ Citation No. 4: “Northern Elephant Seal: Mirounga Angustirostris”, Written by Luis Huckstad & Last Updated on December 8th, 2014. Published by the International Union For The Conservation Of Nature. Retrieval Date: June 5th, 2024.  https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/13581/45227116 Citation No. 5: “Diagnostic Tests for Lungworm-Infected Northern Elephant Seals”, Written by Julie D. Sheldon, Jorge A. Hernandez, Shawn P. Johnson, Cara Field, Sarrah Kaye, & Nicole I. Stacy, & Published on April 25th, 2019. Published by the Marine Mammal Center. Retrieval Date: June 6th, 2024.  https://www.marinemammalcenter.org/publications/diagnostic-tests-for-lungworm-infected-northern-elephant-seals Strategic Partnership Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

The Documented History Of Mauritius  Todays article will discuss the history of the island known as Mauritius. Mauritius is an island nation that exists in the Indian Ocean. It is off the eastern coast of Africa, & it is semi-close to the eastern areas of Madagascar. It is known for its beautiful beaches & active marine life. The main reason for this marine life, is their well kept coral reefs & sea grass meadows. It is a sovereign nation & the people primarily speak French. The French name for Mauritius is Maurice. It is tropical & is one of the most visited countries of all the African nations. It is approximately 1,017.47 Nautical / Marine miles off the coast of Africa. It is also approximately 2724.90 Nautical / Marine Miles off the coast of Antarctica. Additionally, the isle is approximately 2088.98 Nautical / Marine Miles off the coast of the continent known as Asia, specifically the country seagrass of India. The island is home to approximately 1,262,523 people. It has many thriving marine ecosystems which include coral reefs. The Mauritian government & the Mauritian people will take care of these coral reefs. This can be seen in many beach clean ups being conducted. This in attracts many marine animals. These species range from tropical fish, to dolphins, to even certain species of shark. Mauritius is a tropical country & their waters are warm & always at a comfortable temperature. There are very many recreational activities that take place around the island. These activities range from boating, to personal fishing, to swimming, to snorkelling. The oceans of Mauritius are most definitely one of their largest assets in term of the economy. Mauritius is also a very common place for eco-tourism due to their dense rainforest. Mauritius has a long & complex history with it changing hands approximately 4 times, including being a part of the large French & British empire. It also played a role in the development of the dutch east India company. Mauritius has also had many uses over the years depending on the empire that it was being used by, these uses will be further discussed in the historical section of my article. The island has an approximate population of 1,265,475, this number was found by a census in the year 2019. The island has an approximate land area of 2046.09 square kilometers (789.9997656 square miles). In this article we will discuss the discovery & documented history of the island known as Mauritius, The known aboriginals of Mauritius, the most destructive man caused & natural disasters that have affected Mauritius, & finally a segment on the economy of Mauritius. With that being said, let us delve into the island of gorgeous island of Mauritius.  The Documented History Of Mauritius  Before Colonization  The island was uninhabited & unknown before it was discovered. It may have been visited by Arab sailors in the middle ages, however that is not documented. The island does not have any original people & was completely untouched when first discovered by the Moors. There were no original people for this area, as it was completely disconnected from the main continent of Africa’s culture.  After Colonization  16th Century  The moors were the first to discover the island. It is unknown exactly when they found out about it, however it was first discovered on a map made by the Italian cartographer known as Alberto Cantino. This map was made in 1502 so it is safe to assume that the island was known about since 1502. In the map, Cantino depicts three isles which are thought to represent the Mascarenes (Réunion, Mauritius and Rodrigues) & refers to them as them Dina Margabin, Dina Arobi, & Dina Moraze. The medieval Arab world also called the Oceanic region of the Indian ocean, Waqwaq. This goes for any island in that region, not just Mauritius. It is also unclear how far exactly waqwaq extended. After this the Portuguese sailor Domingo Fernandez Pereira visited the island in the year 1511. He was most likely the first Western European sailor to land on the island. He was there for a very brief time period. After this point the island appeared on Portuguese maps with the name “Cirne”. It is sort of unclear what this translates into. Upon arrival, he found the dodo bird, which was a flightless bird in abundance on the island at the time. After this, another Portuguese sailor known as Don Pedro Mascarenhas may have visited the islands. After this point the portugese abandoned the islands as they took no interest in colonizing the island. In the year 1598, a Dutch colony landed on the island. This colony was ordered by Admiral Wybrand Van Warwyck, once the colonists landed they named the island “Mauritius” in order to honour Prince Maurice Van Nassau of Holland. They did not immediately settle the island.    17th Century In the year 1638, an attempt was made to finally settle the island of Mauritius. This attempt was made by the Dutch. It was from this point that the famous Dutch sailor & navigator, Tasman, set out to explore the western areas of Australia. The very first Dutch settlement ended in failure, as it only lasted 20 years. Quickly after, several attempts were made to build another colonization, but unfortunately the settlements were never able to develop enough to produce dividends. This ended in the Dutch finally deciding to abandon all hope, & then leave Mauritius. They did so in 1710. They introduced sugar cane, & deer to the island via imports from mainland Africa.  18th Century After being abandoned by the Dutch, the island became a French colony. It became like this when in September in the year of 1715, Guillaume Dufresne D'Arsel landed & took possession of this precious port of call on the route to India. This made it a sort of way station for ships going to India. D’Arsel named the island “Isle-de-france”. The french much like the Dutch, did not settle immediately. It took until the year 1721 in order for France to finally settle the island. The island was not developed much until 1735 either. It began due to the arrival of a certain french governor known as Mahé de La Bourdonnais, who established Port Louis as a ship-building center & a naval center. Port Louis is still surviving, & is in fact the modern capital of the island. Several buildings built under bis guise also managed to survive to modern day. The island was also under the administration of the French east India company at this time, the company remained on the island until 1767. From 1767 to 1810, the island was governed by french officials, these officials led the island. This was continuous except for a brief period of time during the French Revolution. During this period of time, the colonists on the isle set up their own government system, which was designed to be almost independent of France. At this point the island became somewhat of a constituent country. Amidst the Napoleonic wars, the “isle de France”, had become a base in which the french corsairs orchestrated successful raids & attacks upon the incoming British commercial ships. These raids would continue until the year 1810 when a group of British expeditors captured the island, this started the British colonialism period for Mauritius. 19th Century A preliminary attack was launched on grand port however it failed, the attack was launched in August of 1810. This made way for the much larger attack in December of that same year, which would ultimately capture Mauritius. The British landed on the northern side of the island & quickly overpowered the French forces. The island was formally declared as captured on the 3rd of December, 1810.  By the treaty of Paris in the year 1814 the islands name was changed from “Isle de France” to its former name “Mauritius”. The island was formally ceded to the British around this time as well. In the event of capitulation, the British assured the residents that they would respect the language, customs, traditions, & laws that were already in place. In the act of capitulation, the British guaranteed that they would respect the language, the customs, the laws and the traditions of the inhabitants. British administration was promptly established, the first significant sign of British development was adding the first governor of Mauritius, who was Robert Farquhar. Rapid social & economic changes soon followed his arrival. One of these economic & social changes, was the abolition of slavery on the 1st of February, 1835. This caused a decrease of crop development. Due to this, the planters received compensation of 2 million pound sterlings for the loss of these slaves. The loss of these slaves would cause many plantations to fall into a economic depression. These slaves were mainly imported from mainland Africa & Madagascar during the french occupation. The planters needed labourers to work the fields, so they attempted to recruit Malay, African, & Chinese indentured servants. The planters would ultimately turn to India, from which they would bring a large amount of indentured workers to work the sugar cane fields. These new Indian immigrants, would change the society in many ways both social & economic. They would later be joined by a few Chinese merchants. One of the economic changes that the Indians brought, was that they caused the cultivation of sugar cane to sky rocket on the island. This caused the island to flourish as they not only had an abundance of sugar cane for themselves, but they could import the sugar cane to England. Sir George Ferguson Bowen was the British governor of the island 1879 to 1883.  20th Century  During the 1920s, many conflicts arose between the Indians & the Franco-Mauritians. This led to many fights, which caused many Indians to die. Following close after this, the Labour party, a political party of Mauritius was founded. It was founded in 1936 by Maurice Curé, it was founded to protect & safeguard the interests of labourers. Curé was suceeded  one year later by Emmanual Anquetil, who was attempting to gain the support of port workers. After Anquetils death, Guy Rozemont assumed the leadership duties of the party. The Mauritius territorial force was a military force that was comprised of coastal artillery units & infantry formations, was created in 1934. Due to the escalation of world war 2 as well as the British involvement in world war 2, it was expanded to be 2 battalions. It was later renamed the “Mauritius Regiment” in the year 1943. During the second world war, Mauritians volunteered to help the war effort by either being construction workers, infantry soldiers, or military labourers. Any of them served in the royal pioneer corps in the middle east & in southern Europe. Many Franco-Mauritians were killed while serving as agents of the special operations executive. In December of 1943, 1000 soldiers of the Mauritius regiment were mutinied on the east African island of Madagascar. They did this because they felt betrayed & disrespected as they were told they would only be serving in Mauritius. An independence movement in Mauritius gained momentum in the year 1961, this started when the British agreed to permit self governance to the colony. Between 1965 & 1968 many ethnic riots happened which could only be brought to control with assistance of British troops. This strife led to approximately 300 fatalities. The British rule formally ended on the 12th of March 1968 when the Mauritius independence act was passed. In December of 1991, the constitution of Mauritius was amended to make mauritius a republic within the commonwealth. Mauritius became a republic on the 12th of february of 1992, with the last governor general Sir Veerasamy Ringadoo as interim president.  The Aboriginals Of Mauritius  Unfortunately, there were no aboriginals of Mauritius. Mauritius was uninhabited for as long as we can tell. Arab sailors may have visited the island during the middle ages, but this is not proven.  The Most Destructive Man-Caused & Natural Disasters To Affect Mauritius  No. 1: The Wakashio Environmental Disaster  The Wakashio environmental disaster was an oil spill. It took place on the 25th of July 2020. The Wakashio, one of the worlds largest bulk carriers, was going on a trip from China to Brazil. While passing through the Indian ocean, it struck a large coral reef. This caused massive damage to the ship. Unfortunately, the ship was 17% understaffed so the damages were not noticed for a few days. The ship had only 20 working crew members during the initial crash. With a ship the size of Wakashio, the crew should have been at least 24. A few days later, the ship began leaking oil. The ship slowly began breaking apart due to damages, & unfortunately it was breaking on a whale nursing ground. It began breaking just south of Mauritius. As the oil leaked out, Mauritian shorelines became drenched in approximately 1,000 tons of toxic fuel. This destroyed many shallow coral reefs, which caused fish to leave or die. This ended up destroying the livelihoods of thousands of fisherman & tourism workers. The sands became contaminated as well which caused many issues for the people who made a living along the beaches. The Wakashio oil disaster can be attributed to approximately 50 dead whale carcasses. The Mauritian government choose to not release much information, so it is unclear exactly what type of oil leaked out. There is also no disclosure as to the necropsies that were conducted on the dead cetaceans who were killed as a result of the event.  No.2: Cyclone Emnati  Cyclone Emnati was a tropical cyclone that lasted from the 15th of February 2022 through the 26th of February 2022. It was only 2 weeks after the major cyclone known as Cyclone Batsirai. It was classified as an intense tropical cyclone as well as a category 4 tropical cyclone. The highest winds that it had were at 130 miles per hour (209.215 kilometers per hour). Ir ran through the islands of Mauritius, Reunion, & Madagascar. It cost approximately 1 million U.S.D. in damages, adjusted for inflation that would be approximately 1,022,261.71 in todays exchange.  The Economic State Of Mauritius The economic state of Mauritius is stable. Mauritius currently has a 11.263 billion U.S.D. They rank 150th in economy. Their GDP by sector is 4% agriculture, 21.8% industry, & 74.1% services. Their inflation rate was 4.1% in 2020. Their main industries are currently food processing, textiles, clothing, mining, chemicals, metal products, transport equipment, nonelectrical machinery, & tourism. Their current public debt is 64% of their GDP which is 716,819,2384. Historically, they have relied heavily on sugar production, as a way to combat this, in the 1980s the government of Mauritius sought to diversify their economy. This endeavour has worked out quite well for them. Mauritius current currency is the Mauritian rupee. 1 U.S.D equates to 46.05 Mauritian rupees. Mauritius does have a stock market. It is called the Stock Exchange Of Mauritius. It has approximately 200+ securities.  Directories / Credits  http://www.govmu.org/English/ExploreMauritius/Pages/History.asp https://www.aljazeera.com/amp/opinions/2021/8/4/remembering-the-mauritius-worst-environmental-disaster https://safety4sea.com/cm-mv-wakashio-oil-spill-a-timeline-of-events-in-an-environmental-disaster/ https://www.forbes.com/sites/nishandegnarain/2020/10/11/wakashios-skeleton-crew-mauritius-oil-spill-ship-was-17-understaffed/?sh=572f6088618f Strategic Partnerships  Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons  Ms. Ochoa

Marine Biological Hall Of Distinction: Doctor Ruth Dixon Turner  This article is a part of our collection known as the Marine Hall Of Distinction. It is a different series from our main monthly series & has no connection to the main monthly series. In this special collection, we will discuss marine biologists who we feel have served marine biology & oceanography the most. We do this in order to commemorate these marine biologists & to show gratitude for everything they have contributed to our oceans. This collection has no relation to the main monthly series. This series is published on the 25th of every month, shortly after our article on the oceanic environment of a certain region on the 20th. Today’s marine biologist is Ruth Dixon Turner. Ruth Dixon Turner is a famous American Malacologist & Marine Biologist, renowned for her research on Shipworms, a marine kind of pest. Shipworms are a specific kind of worm, which enjoy burrowing into any wood submerged in seawater, causing severe damage to marine fixtures & boats. Contrary to the name, they are not worms, & are clams with long bodies that extend outside of their shells. Throughout her career, Ruth Dixon Turner dedicated herself to studying these destructive animals, leading her to become the World’s foremost expert on Shipworms. In her several decade-long career, she described at least 2 new species of mollusks. In this article, we are going to discuss the Formative Years & Education of Ruth Dixon Turner, the Career of Ruth Dixon Turner, The Accomplishments, Achievements, Honourables, & Awards Of Ruth Dixon Turner, & finally The Publications Of Ruth Dixon Turner.  With that being said, let us delve into the life of one of the world’s leading Marine Scientists. The Formative Years & Education Of Doctor Ruth Dixon Turner  Ruth Dixon Turner was born in Melrose, Massachusetts, on December 7th, 1914. Extremely little is known about her childhood, or education before university. She attended university at Bridgewater State College, located in Massachusetts, & Graduated with a Bachelor of Science in 1936.  The Career Of Ruth Dixon Turner Ruth Dixon Turner began her career as a Schoolteacher in Vermont, & Massachusetts. This was until she was offered the position of Assistant Director of Education for the New England Museum Of Natural History, which she gladly accepted. Although she is well known for her marine biological feats, she began her Scientific career in Ornithology, & harbored an interest in Ornithology until her death. As a result of her love, adoration, & respect for birds, she left her position as Assistant Director & was appointed promptly as Assistant Curator of Birds. She soon left his position, moving on to Vassar College as an Instructor in Biology. Alongside her work at Vassar College, she completed her Masters Degree in the Sciences from Cornell University. Her love for Ornithology soon led her to the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard University, where she volunteered in the Department Of Ornithology. It was here where she met William J. Clench, Assistant Curator of Molluscs at the time. Clench introduced her to Dr. William Clapp, a famous scientist studying marine wood-eating worms. She began establishing an interest in Molluscs, & was introduced to the field of Malacology. She left the Museum in 1944 to work at the William F. Clapp Laboratories in Duxbury, Massachusetts, however, she would return to the museum 2 years later to continue working with Clench. One of her first official research projects was conducted in 1949, in which she made a trip to Cuba to study Marine & Terrestrial Molluscs with Clench. Soon after in 1954, she would receive her P.h.D from Radcliffe College at Harvard University, officially making her a doctor. Her dissertation was on the family Terenidae, more commonly known as shipworms, & is still considered a standard work to this day. From 1956 onwards to 1975 she worked as a lecturer of Biology at Harvard University, conducting research & publishing papers often. In 1976, she officially became a professor of Biology, & the Curator of Molluscs for the Museum of Comparative Zoology where she had spent some of her younger years. In addition to these, she joined the scientific journal “Johnsonia” as a co-editor. She received 2 honorary Doctorate of Science degrees from both the New England College, & Plymouth State College Of The University Of New Hampshire. Her work earned her the respect & ability to appoint meetings for the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, the Academy of Natural Sciences, The Gray Museum, Leigh University, The University of New South Wales in Australia, & the University of Puerto Rico. In the same year, For all of her astounding research, she was officially named “Diver of the Year” by the Boston Sea Rovers, a local Educational society for which she was a proud supporter & member. She went on to serve terms as President of the American Malacological Union, & Boston Malacological Club. On August 13th, 1971, Turner became the first woman to dive using the deep sea research vessel ALVIN. This sparked a passion for deep sea science, that would lead to her describing why there was such little wood left on the recently discovered Titanic Wreckage. Turner was one of the pioneers in the study of marine biodeterioration, & developed a close relationship with the Office of Naval Research as a result of it. Along with her research on Mollusc Ecology, she had the opportunity to conduct many research studies in very niche areas of the globe, from Pakistan to South America to The Soviet Union. It is by those who knew her that she treated each new scientist & colleague with a sense of warmth & friendliness, & had an astounding ability to communicate her science to people of all ages & backgrounds. Unfortunately, Doctor Ruth Dixon Turner passed away on the 30th of 2000, in Waltham, Massachusetts. Her love for science, & many publications will remain relevant in marine science for a very long time. Her contributions to marine biology were immense, & have not been forgotten or ignored.  The Accomplishments, Achievements, Honourables, & Awards Of Doctor Ruth Dixon Turner  She has over 100 Scientific Publications.  She has described 2 new species of Shipworms. She was awarded 2 separate Honorary Doctoral Degrees from Plymouth College at the University of New Hampshire, & New England College.  She was an Honorary Life Member Of the National Shellfisheries Association. Directories / Credits Citation No. 1: “Women of the Museum of Comparative Zoology (MCZ)”, Written by Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by the Harvard Digital Library. Retrieval Date: June 14th, 2024. https://guides.library.harvard.edu/fas/WomenInBio/Turner Citation No. 2: “Who Was Ruth Turner?”, Written by Bruno Costeleni, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by Ernest Mayr Library Blog. Retrieval Date: June 14th, 2024. https://library.mcz.harvard.edu/blog/who-was-ruth-turner Citation No. 3: “In Memoriam: Ruth Dixon Turner, 1914 to 2000”, Written by Unknown & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by the Journal of Shellfish Research. Retrieval Date: June 14th, 2024. https://shellfish.memberclicks.net/assets/docs/in%20memoriam%20ruth%20turner%20191.pdf Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors  SharkedSkooler Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

The Oceans Surrounding The Island Of Mauritius Today's article will discuss the oceans surrounding the island of Mauritius. Mauritius is an island nation that exists in the Indian Ocean. It is off the eastern coast of Africa, & it is semi-close to the eastern areas of Madagascar. It is known for its beautiful beaches & active marine life. The main reason for this marine life is their well-kept coral reefs & seagrass meadows. It is a sovereign nation & the people primarily speak French. The French name for Mauritius is Maurice. It is tropical & is one of the most visited countries of all the African nations. It is approximately 1,017.47 Nautical / Marine miles off the coast of Africa. It is also approximately 2724.90 Nautical / Marine Miles off the coast of Antarctica. Additionally, the isle is approximately 2088.98 Nautical / Marine Miles off the coast of the continent known as Asia, specifically the country of India. The island is home to approximately 1,262,523 people. It has many thriving marine ecosystems which include coral reefs. The Mauritian government & the Mauritian people will take care of these coral reefs. This can be seen in many beach clean-ups being conducted. This attracts many marine animals. These species range from tropical fish to dolphins, to even certain species of shark. Mauritius is a tropical country & their waters are warm & always at a comfortable temperature. There are very many recreational activities that take place around the island. These activities range from boating & term snorkeling to personal fishing, to swimming, to snorkelling. The oceans of Mauritius are most definitely one of their largest assets in term of the economy. Mauritius is also a very common place for eco-tourism due to its dense rainforest. This clash of land & oceanic ecosystems works out quite nicely as it leaves Mauritius with much to offer. There are not very many islands that are similar to Mauritius due to their unique marine features & unique geography. In this article, we will discuss the salinity, temperature, marine geography & terrain, the most important marine ecosystems, the documented marine flora & fauna, & the utilization of marine resources of Mauritius, Mauritius. With that being said, let us delve into one of the prettiest islands in the Indian Ocean.  The Salinity, Temperatures, Tides, Marine Geography, & Basic Information Of Mauritius The salinity of the island has not been measured & released to the public domain. Since the island is in the Indian Ocean, it has the second to last place in salinity levels. This means that the Indian Ocean is less salty than 2 of the other oceans but not one other. Salt deposits / Brine Pools may be less common around the island due to the salinity parts per thousand being rather low. However, the possibility of brine pools existing is not far-fetched. The Indian Ocean has a salinity of between 32 & 37 parts per thousand. Salinity is measured in 1,000 grams of water. For every 1000 grams of water, there will be a certain number of grams that are pure salt. This is how salinity or saline level is measured. There are also no ongoing factors that would lead to the salinity level being altered. The oceanic temperatures for the island can be found on a plethora of web pages but the easiest to use are the following: Sea Temperature Infohttps:// seatemperature.info , seatemperature.nethttps:// seatemperature.net , SeaTemperatu.rehttps:// www.seatemperatu.re , & finally SeaTemperature.orghttps:// www.seatemperature.org . The water temperatures usually peak at the beginning of February & are at their lowest point at the beginning of August. There is not much of a presence of riptide or at least enough of a presence to pose a threat to any swimmers. Mauritius is perfectly safe for swimmers around the majority of the island. There might be some areas that are undesirable to swim in but other than that the island is safe to swim in. There are stonefish & other species that pose a natural hazard, so this should be taken into consideration when going swimming around the island. The tide around the island is relatively calm & usually never reaches over 2.3 meters (7.54593 feet) high. The deepest oceanic point within 5 nautical miles of the island is approximately 2097 feet (639.1656 meters) deep. Oceanic mounts are not seemingly very common close to the coastline. The ocean floor consists of mostly sand, rock, & coral in this particular region.  The Most Prominent Marine Ecosystems Of Mauritius No. 1 Coral Reef Coral reefs are one of the most important marine ecological features of Mauritius. It attracts many species, a lot of which are endangered. The coral reefs provide a habitat for many species, such as stonefish, not to mention they are living being of their own. Coral reefs are incredibly common around Mauritius, however, they are becoming increasingly vulnerable due to ocean acidification & other factors. The majority of these reefs are classified as fringing reefs. Fringing reefs are incredibly close to the shoreline, thus However there are some reef atolls, reef atolls are coral reefs in the shape of rings, or coral islands. There is an atoll archipelago group known as Saint Brandon which is off the coast of Mauritiusbeings and has approximately 22 reefs. There are approximately 138 species of coral that are found in Mauritian waters.  No. 2 Seagrass Meadows Seagrass meadows often embellish fringing coral reefs along the coast. There is no real demographic as to the exact density of certain species in certain areas, however, there are approximately 36 species of seagrasses that have been observed in Mauritian waters. These meadows are usually located close to the coastline, but they can be found very far out at sea. They are usually composed of a variety of seagrasses & are usually host a variety of things such as fish, fish eggs, hunting grounds, a fish nursery, & being a shelter for certain species.  No. 3 Mangrove Forests Mangrove forests are found in Mauritius. Mangrove forests are composed of saltwater of freshwater streams running through the forest, & causing a creek to form. This creek will then gain nutrients, & trees will grow into the creek, creating a labyrinth of roots. There are 2 main mangrove tree species found in Mauritius, they are known as Rhizophora mucronata (Loop-root mangrove) & Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (large-leafed orange mangrove). They are currently restricted to the east & northwestern coast.  Mauritius unfortunately currently has between 1.2 & 1.81 square kilometers (0.463323 to 0.698845 square miles) of designated mangrove forest. There is currently very little data as to what species inhabit these mangrove forests, this is an area that requires more research as if nothing is done to preserve the remaining mangrove forest, we may see it gone forever.  No. 4 Mangrove Coasts / Lagoons Mangrove coasts are a specific kind of mangrove forest in which the trees grow directly along the coastline. This type of mangrove forest is rare nowadays due to rising sea levels. They are also known as mangrove lagoons.  The Documented Marine Flora Of Mauritius  There is a very diverse range of species when it comes to marine flora in Mauritius. The first few groups of species that we will be discussing are seagrasses & algae. There are currently 36 species of seagrasses which are found around Mauritius. The number of which of these species are native to Mauritius is unknown. There are approximately 160 genera of sea algae that are found in Mauritian waters. These include but are not limited to, Enteromorpha, Ulva, Sargassum, Caulerpa, Padina & Halimeda. Moving onto mangrove tree species, as stated in the subsection above speaking about the mangrove forests of Mauritius, there are currently 2 species of mangrove tree that are observed on Mauritius. These species are known as Rhizophora mucronata (Loop-root mangrove) & Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (large-leafed orange mangrove). These mangrove species originated in Polynesia & West Africa. Other than that, there are no known endemic marine plant species in Mauritius.  The Documented Marine Fauna Of Mauritius  There are approximately 493 fish species & 175 gastropod species. Unfortunately, we cannot discuss all 668 marine species that are documented right here. We will only be discussing the most prominent species around Mauritius. Since Mauritius has very healthy coral reefs which are in abundance, many colorful creatures are attracted. Many clean ups & conservation efforts are also ongoing that helps maintain the biodiversity of the island. Not only that, but Mauritius does not allow personal fishing without a permit granted by the prime minister himself. This allows for the fish population to thrive without constantly being bombarded by fishermen. Now, the most prominent marine species of Mauritius are as follows: Reef Stonefish (Synanceia verrucosa), (bottlenose dolphins), black cheek moray eel, African clownfish, Sargocentron diadema (crown squirrelfish), Pterois antennata (Broadbarred firefish), Mugil cephalus (flathead mullet), Epinephelus fasciatus (blacktip grouper), Epinephelus merra (honeycomb grouper), Elagatis bipinnulata (rainbow runner), Sphyraena Barracuda (Great barracuda), Thunnus albacares (Yellowfish tuna), & finally Scarus Ghobban (green blotched parrotfish).  How The Marine Resources Of Mauritius Were Utilized & How That Affected The Environment  The most that the marine resources of Mauritius were used was when commercial fishing was done. Commercial fishing is practiced somewhat in Mauritius, however fishing for personal use isn’t. Due to commercial fishing, certain fish populations have been decreased by large percentages. Something similarhelp is that ocean acidification is affecting the coral horribly. Ocean acidification is caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.  Atmospheric carbon dioxide levels have increased, largely because of human-caused burning of fossil fuels, & deforestation, for the past 150 years.  When carbon dioxide contacts sea water, it forms carbonic acid.  Carbonic acid gives off positive H+ ions, which causes increased oceanic H+ concentrations & decreased oceanic Ph. It also causes increased oceanic temperature. Ocean acidification is slowly causing the coral to bleach at an alarming rate.  Directories / Credits https://www.tideschart.com/Mauritius/Plaines-Wilhems/Beau-Bassin--Rose-Hill/ https://www.nairobiconvention.org/mauritius-country-profile/biodiversity-mauritius-country-profile/ Mangroves of Mauritius - Yo Nature https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000382205 Fisheries legislation in Mauritius Strategic Partnerships  Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa

Ode To Oceanography: An Antique Nautical Chart Of Martinique, France This article is the twelfth article in the Ode To Oceanography. This series will publish on the 15th of every month, until we run out of antique nautical maps to analyze, though that will not be for many decades. Once that happens, we will keep the series running, but we will change the article format. In these articles, will take an antique nautical map & analyze it in its entirety. These maps will not strictly be on open oceanic waters, they may be on rivers or occasionally, bays. We will also discuss the methods that may have been used to make the map, considering the period, & the country of origin. These maps will come from a variety of sources, though they will mainly come from Maps Of Antiquity, a wonderful New England map shop. These maps will come from varying periods, & will not be in any particular historical order. Today’s map is an antique map of Martinique, which is an overseas French territory. The area depicted on the map is a road along Saint Pierre, which used to be one of the sparkling jewels of the island. Saint Pierre is located on the central western side of the island, along with this particular road. The map does have some yellowing along the coastal area of the map, & a strange yellow dot on the right-hand side of the map. The yellowing on the paper is due to the oxidation caused by the cellulose in the paper. The edges are a bit blunt, & 1 of them is slightly curled back, but that does not obscure any of the map. The map is 17 inches (43.18 centimeters) long, & 12.25 (31.115 centimeters) inches wide. In this article, we will discuss the map itself, the translation of certain sections of the map, & a surface-level analysis of this antique nautical map. With that being said let us delve into the Caribbean Sea, of the prized Martinique. The Map Itself Since this map was made & designed in English, there is no need for translation. The map is very detailed & clear, with no writing smudged. The main thing on this map is the road & community along Saint Pierre. Additionally, the map is centered on this road. Interestingly, The map has the oceanic depths of the surrounding coast on it. uncolored, & does not seem to have any faded color. Many topographical features are outlined, such as the nearby mountains.  A Surface Level Analysis Of The Chart  This map was designed & printed in 1877, by the United States Hydrographic Office of the United States Navy. The original survey that was used to make the map, was done by the French, in 1825. This map was made for militaristic purposes, & most likely used for them. The map is extremely precise, accurate, detailed, & incredibly useful for sailors who were sailing into Saint Pierre. It is unclear if this map was a part of any particular collection. This map was most certainly made via the lithographic process, due to its maker, & the periodAfterward that it was manufactured in. In the lithographic method, the artist will draw directly onto a printing surface, such as zinc, or copper, until they are satisfied with the drawing. After this, the surface will be covered with a chemical etch, which will bond it to the surface. With this process, the blank areas will attract moisture to the plate & repel the lithographic ink, while the areas that are drawn on will hold the ink. Water is then wiped onto the unpainted areas to help prevent the ink from deviating. After the map wanted is inked, the paper is laid over it & covered with a tympan, & the tympan is pressed down. Finally, these materials pass through the scraper bar of the litho press. Afterwards, an exact copy of whatever was supposed to be printed is revealed. Directories / Credits All credit for this map analyzed today goes to Maps Of Antiquity, a wonderful New England map shop. To purchase this map, any other maps, or any other cartographic objects, please visit mapsofantiquity.com . To be clear, this is not an advertisement for Maps Of Antiquity, as we do not have a partnership with them.  Strategic Partnerships  Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

The Reef Stonefish Of Mauritius (Synanceia verrucosa)  This month's article series will discuss... the island of Mauritius! Mauritius is an island nation that exists in the Indian Ocean. It is off the eastern coast of Africa, & it is semi-close to the eastern areas of Madagascar. It is known for its beautiful beaches & active marine life. The main reason for this marine life is their well-kept coral reefs & seagrass meadows. It is a sovereign nation & the people primarily speak French. The French name for Mauritius is Maurice. It is tropical & is one of the most visited countries of all the African nations. It is approximately 1,017.47 Nautical / Marine miles off the coast of Africa. It is also approximately 2724.90 Nautical / Marine Miles off the coast of Antarctica. Additionally, the isle is approximately 2088.98 Nautical / Marine Miles off the coast of the continent known as Asia, specifically the country of India. The island is home to approximately 1,262,523 people. It has many thriving marine ecosystems which include coral reefs. The Mauritian government & the Mauritian people will take care of these coral reefs. This can be seen in many beach clean-ups being conducted. This attracts many marine animals. These species range from tropical fish to dolphins, to even certain species of shark. However there is one species in particular that is unique from all else, this species is known as the Synanceia Verrucosa (Reef Stonefish). It is known as the most poisonous fish on earth. They pack a powerful venom which can easily be lethal to a full grown adult. They are known for camouflaging stones to attack their prey. They are very bumpy & often misshapen to put on this camouflage of being a stone. However, it is still quite colorful. It does not only do this for camouflage from prey, but for camouflage from predators. Certain types of other fish will attempt to consume the stonefish, which is possible. The only way to consume a stonefish without being stung is to catch it completely by surprise, this way its venomous spines do not become erect. It is found near the shoreline in shallow coral reefs, which is somewhat horrifying. In this article, we will discuss the life of the reef stonefish, the mating procedures, tactics, practices, & cycles of the reef stonefish, the distribution of the reef stonefish, & finally the scientific detailings of the reef stonefish. With that being said, let us delve into the reef stonefish.  The Life Of The Reef Stonefish The reef stonefish was first described in the year 1766 by Carl Linnaeus. It was described in volume one of his novel Systema Naturae. It is unknown how or when he found this species. Commonly, stonefish will grow up to approximately 16 inches (40.64 centimeters). This does change based on gender as usually the females are much larger than the males. They will weigh approximately 5 pounds (2.26796 kilograms), once again this does differ based on gender. Their life span is approximately 7.5 years on average. The intellect of a stonefish is a subject with little understanding. From what is known, they have the same intellect as other types of reef fish. They do not seem to show affection or any type of feeling. They also do not seem to have a very good memory. They are nowhere near as emotionally intelligent or intelligent as a dolphin or reef shark. It is unknown how long this particular species has existed. They are not social creatures at all whatsoever. They are surprisingly not usually aggressive to humans unless aggravated. However, when aggravated, their spines become erect. When their spines become erect they are able to inject their lethal venom into people. Often, they will avoid interaction with humans. They are not known to be aggressive to other fish. They are not very social creatures either. Additionally, they are not known to be very territorial either. They sleep by completely stopping motion & partially burying themselves in coral rubble or sand. Their diet largely consists of reef fish of various kinds, small crustaceans, & certain other small marine species. They are not known to consume cephalopods. It is unknown how much they eat per day but it is most likely between 5% & 10% of their bodily weight. They are also not known to be cannibalistic. They are nocturnal predators & will often hunt at night. This is most likely due to the fact that at nighttime the vision of most fish is limited so the stonefish can easily catch the fish. The most common predators of these creatures are reef sharks. They are incredibly skilled hunters & can sense & catch prey in as little as 0.0015 seconds (1.5 milliseconds). They do not have a relatively high metabolism due to them being sedentary creatures. They do not swim very often. When the stonefish does swim, it will use its pectoral fins not only to swim & hop but more so to burrow deep into coral rubble or sand when hunting prey. The speeds at which they swim are unknown. This species of stonefish is usually brown, red, yellow, orange, or black. They can also be a mix of all of these colors as they are generally not one solid color. The dorsal fin usually contains between 12 to 14 spines & 5 to 7 soft rays while the anal fin has 3 spines & 5 to 6 soft rays. Their dorsal spines are of equal length to the anal spines. The dorsal spines however have a thicker sheath of skin containing venom glands at the base. The skin has no scales but it does have bumps & warts. It is also very misshapen. The head is wide & flattened. They have small upwardly directed eyes that have a deep pit behind them with a smaller pit underneath them.  The Mating Tactics, Habits, Cycles, & Practices Of The  Reef Stonefish The reef stonefish mates via sexual reproduction. However, the females & the males do not entangle. They do not appear to have a specific breeding season. It is unknown at what age either genders reach sexual maturity. They are not monogamous in any form whatsoever. They are also unable to lactate as they have no parental involvement in their children’s lives. They are also not hermaphroditic & are not able to change sexes in any way whatsoever. The female & male who reproduce together, never actually meet each other. The actual mating process follows something similar to this. Once the female is ready she will lay her unfertilized eggs on the floor of a reef. She will lay as many as 1 million eggs at once on the ocean floor. There, unfortunately, is no actual demographic as to how many of these eggs catch or how many of them live to see adulthood. Afterward, a male will swim over to the egg pile & release his sperm on the eggs in order to fertilize them. After this point there is no parental involvement at all. It is unknown how long it takes for the eggs to hatch. However after the eggs hatch, the creatures are quite well developed. They will then swim off into the ocean & most likely never interact again with each other. This process may be repeated several times in the female's life, it is also unknown if she takes intervals in releasing eggs & if so how long these intervals are.  The Distribution Of The Reef Stonefish Reef stonefish are the most distributed of all the 5 stonefish species. They are found everywhere from East Africa to the Marquesas general area. They are also found up the Persian Gulf. They are found in the highest density around Australia, Indonesia, & the southeastern areas of Africa. This is due to their liking of warm temperatures. They also usually stay in shallow waters, it is rare to find them in places other than coral reefs. This is also most likely due to the fact that the world's largest coral reefs are found in these areas which provide a habitat for reef stonefish. They are not migratory creatures & will often live a rather sedentary life. They will often stay near the same areas in which they were born. This species in particular is also popular in the private aquarium trade so theoretically if a boat transporting this species were to capsize, this species would escape into the wild. A situation like this is not very far-fetched so precautions to properly transport this species should be set in place.  The Scientific Detailings Of The Reef Stonefish The stonefish are unique in many aspects however the most prominent aspect is their lethal venom. An article from Science Direct states that “Known components of stonefish venoms include hyaluronidase [15], a 46 kDa protein from S. verrucosa venom with inotropic and chronotropic effects [16] named cardiolipin, and a 45 kDa lectin from S. verrucosa that causes agglutination of rabbit erythrocytes [17]. Large, dimeric pore-forming toxins from both S.”. This venom is located in the dorsal fin spines. When the spines become erect & something causes the spines to sting, the venom will then be injected into the victim. These spines are sharp enough to pierce through the average tennis shoe. When this venom is injected, it may induce intense pain in the site that was punctured, swelling at the initial sting site, respiratory distress, damage to the ability of the cardiovascular system, convulsions, necrosis, complete paralysis, & in extreme cases death. Signs show up usually within minutes. This venom compound is unique to stonefish. This venom is stored in a way that it can be extracted if done correctly. The venom is also produced by a particular gland in the stonefish. Stonefish have incredibly small sharp teeth meant for ripping apart the tissue of fish. Their skeletal system is similar to that of most other ray-skinned fish. It is unknown what exactly they evolved from, but they most likely evolved into what they are now approximately 275 million years ago. Fossils of this particular species are undocumented & it is unknown how many fossils in particular we have of this species. Their phylum is Chordata meaning that they developed these 5 characteristics all species under the phylum of Chordata develop 5 similar characteristics either In adulthood or as juveniles. The characteristics that they develop include, a notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, endostyle or thyroid, pharyngeal Slits, & a post-anal tail. Also, all chordates possess a circulatory system. This is not to be confused with the word Cordate, which means something heart-shaped. This is typically used in the context of plants. Their class is Actinopterygii, which means that they are ray-finned fish. This also means that their actinopterygian fin rays attach directly to the proximal or basal skeletal elements. This class comprises over 50% of living vertebrate species. Their order is Scorpaeinformes. This is an order of ray-skinned fish such as lionfish, sculpins, & stonefish. It is one of the largest orders of ray-skinned fish as it has 1,320 species currently categorized under it. Their family is Scorpaenidae. This is a family that holds most of the world's venomous marine fish. Species under this family are mostly found in the Indo-Pacific. The etymology of their name is that it comes from the word scorpionfish. The reason for that is because most animals under this family sting with venomous mucus. Their genus is Synanceia. This genus has all of the living stonefish species categorized within it. This genus contains the most venomous fish ever recorded. Their binomial name is Synanceia verrucosa.  What To Do If You Are Stung By A Reef  Stonefish  There are approximately 50,000 injuries due to envenomation at the fault of a stonefish. The following steps are some steps that you may take in order to prevent any further damage to yourself. Please remember that this is not a medical sourcebook & that this information may not work for certain individuals for various reasons.  Step No. 1: Remove Any Spines That May Be Attached  The spines from the stonefish may have come off in the limb that you were stung in. If this is the case, remove the spines with gloves. Do not touch them or remove them with bare hands, use a cloth barrier.  Step No. 2: Immerse The Area In Non-Scalding Hot Water Studies show that water immersion that is approximately 45° Celsius (113° Fahrenheit) or there about for 30 to 90 minutes helps soothe the wound. Make sure that the water is no higher than 45° Celsius (113° Fahrenheit) to ensure that the person is not burned or injured further.  Step No. 3: Seek Immediate Medical Assistance From A Hospital This is not the type of sting that is curable on your own. Time is of the essence so immediately go to the hospital after noticing the sting. The more time that you wait the more likely severe complications are. This concludes our segment on what to do in the event of being stung by a Synanceia verrucosa.  Directories / Credits https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8225006/#!po=0.303030 https://www.britannica.com/animal/Synanceja-verrucosa Stonefish: The World's Deadliest Fish - Tynemouth Aquarium Stonefish Facts: The Most Venomous Fish in the World - ... 11 Scary Stonefish Facts - Fact Animal http://bioweb.uwlax.edu/bio203/s2008/sumic_igor/index_files/Page635.htm Investigation of the estuarine stonefish (Synanceia horrida) venom ... Hot water immersion as a treatment for stonefish sting: A case report - PMC Strategic Partnerships  Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa

The Documented History Of Oostende, Belgium Todays article will discuss the History surrounding the eastern areas of Belgium, specifically the town of Oostende. Oostende is in the northern area of Belgium. It is touching the southern area of the North Sea. It is on mainland & is not an island. Oostende has one of magnificent beaches of Belgium attached to it, known as Ostend beach. For the historical part of this month’s series, the history of the town will be studied instead of the beach itself. Oostende is approximately 61.66 miles from (70.957061 miles or 114.19432 kilometers) from the island of Great Britain. The English version of the name, is Ostend. From now on in this article Oostende will be referred to Ostend. The name Oostende translates from German into English as “East End”. This is a bit confusing as Ostend & Ostend Beach are on the northeastern area of Belgium. The German speaking population of Belgium is in the western area, not the area where Ostend & Ostend Beach are. This leads many to wonder how the town was named. It is currently considered to be one of the most beautiful beaches in all of Belgium. It is also one of the most well known beaches in Belgium because of how beautiful it is & active marine life. It has a rich & powerful history. Ostend is located in the province of West Vlanders. It has an interesting military history, as well as cultural history. The city of Ostend has an approximate population of 71,557. This number was found on a census taken in Ostend on January 1st of 2022. They do have a city website, which is known as https://www.oostende.be/ . Unfortunately, it is in Dutch so the majority of the website will need to be translated into English. The town had an approximate land area of 40.95 square kilometers (15.810883 square miles). The highest elevation in the town is not written down. In this article we will discuss the discovery & documented history of the town known as Ostend, The known aboriginals of Ostend, the most destructive man caused & natural disasters of Ostend, & finally a segment on the economy of Ostend. With that being said, let us delve into the most beautiful sea-side town in all of Belgium.  The Documented History Of Oostende, Belgium Before Colonization  The 13th Century  It is unknown when humans first came to this area. Ostend was first formed before 1265. It was originally formed on an island known as Testerep. It was on the far east end of this island, this may be a contributing factor as to why it was called “Oostende”. It was first formed as a small fishing village. The village moved up in status to a town in approximately the year 1265. This coincided with the town residents being on record to have decided to hold a market. They also decided to build a market hall. It comes as no surprise that the towns main industry was fishing at this time. The 14th Century   The north sea coastline had always been rather unstable due to the power of the water, which is why, In 1395 the inhabitants decided to build a new Ostend behind large dikes and further away from the unpredictable coastline. The seas main threat was large crashing waves which would destroy many things along the coastline. The original Ostend at this point was abandoned, & a new one was built on the area where it is now.  After Proper Formation & Dutch Colonization  The 17th Century  The Ostendian economy relied on fishing, meaning that it was vital to the township’s economic development to have proper placement on the northern sea coast. Ostend ended up building up in an area that would provide a place for a nice harbour, but their placement would also prove to be a source of issues. The town was frequently taken, ravaged, ransacked & destroyed by conquering armies, more specifically the Dutch. In the end, the Dutch rebels known as the Gueuzen, invaded & stole the town. The siege of Ostend took place from 1601 to 1604, of which it was said that "the Spanish assailed the unassailable & the Dutch defended the indefensible". In this battle, approximately 80,000 soldiers were killed & wounded, this makes it the single most bloody & destructive battle of the eighty years war. This horrific conflict set off a chain of events of which would later result in a truce being made. When this truce was breached, the town became a Dunkirker base. After this low point, Ostends harbour was turned into something with a small level of importance. It was strategically important in that it was one of the already well established harbour in this specific area of the north sea.  The 18th Century  In 1722 the Dutch, again closed off the entrance to the world's largest harbour at the time, of Antwerp, the Westerschelde. Therefore, Ostend rose in importance because the town provided an alternative exit strategy to the sea. This would also boost the economy as it would cause more people to have to pass through the town to reach the harbour. The Belgian Austriacum had also just become a part of the Austrian empire at this time. The then Austrian Emperor Charles the IV granted the town the trade monopoly with Africa & the Far-East. This would also dramatically boost the economy. The Oostendse Compagnie was now allowed to found colonies overseas. However, in 1727 the Oostendse Compagnie was forced to stop its activities because of Dutch &  British pressure. The Netherlands & The United Kingdom would not allow their competitors to trade on the same levels as them. They regarded the right to internationally trade as their privilege & their privilege only.  The 19th Century  On the 19th of September, 1826 an artillery magazine exploded in the local area. At least 20 people lost their lives in this incident & 200 of them were severely wounded. The affluent quarter of d'Hargras was levelled as a result & the majority of the buildings were absolutely destroyed. Disease followed the devastation leading to further unaccounted number of deaths. The harbour of Ostend continued to expand due to the harbour dock, as well as the traffic connections with the hinterland, were improved. In 1838, a railway connection to Brussels was constructed, it is unknown what cities government paid for this. In the year 1846, Ostend became a designated transit harbour point when a ferry carrying passengers sailed from Ostend Harbour to Dover. On October 1854 a meeting of American envoys led what is known as the Ostend Manifesto. Important for the public imagery of the town, was the attention that it began to receive from Belgian kings Leopold I & Leopold II. Both of these Monarchs were very fond of Ostend & often were documented spending their summer vacations in the glorious. Due to this, important monuments & villas were built to please the royal family, which included the Hippodrome Wellington horse racing track, as well as the Royal Galleries. The rest of aristocratic Belgian society followed & soon Ostend became known as "the queen of the Belgian sea-side resorts". In the year 1866, Ostend was the venue for meeting of exile Spanish liberals & republicans to lay the framework for their country.  The 20th Century  During world war 1, ostend was occupied by germanic forces & was often used as an access point to to the northern sea for submarines as well as ships. As a consequence of the heavy military presence, the harbour fell victim to 2 naval assaults by the Royal Navy of Britain. The village hosted majority if not all sailing events for the country from this point on. They also held all sailing activities for the 1920 summer olympics for Antwerp.  World war 2 invoked the second occupation of the town by Germany within a period of little more than twenty years; an occupation which it shared this time with most of northern Europe. Both conflicts brought significant destruction to Ostend. In addition, other opulent buildings which had survived the wars were later replaced with structures in the modernist artistic style. The Aboriginals Of Oostende, Belgium  It is unfortunately, completely unknown who occupied Belgium first. The aboriginals of this area have not been identified as of the time of publication.  The Most Destructive Man-Caused & Natural Disasters To Affect Oostende, Belgium No. 1: Artillery Explosion Of 1826  A large artillery magazine exploded on the night of the 19th of September, 1826. This caused 10 fatalities & approximately 200 injuries. The exact location of the artillery magazine when it exploded is unclear. The quarter of d’hargras was completely levelled & very few buildings escaped the carnage. This also caused water to be inaccessible, which caused or contributed to a large disease outbreak.  No. 2: The Siege Of Ostend  The siege of ostend lasted from the 5th of July, 1701 to the 20th of September, 1704, back when Belgium was known as the Spanish Netherlands. It was incredibly long & we cannot fit all events that happened in the war in this subsection, so we will be giving a brief overview of it. We will not be discussing the 80 years war itself. The 80 year’s war was caused by a dutch revolt against the Spanish. The dutch used Ostend as a major force against the Spanish as ostend could easily be supported due to its magnificent harbour. As one source states, “Ostend was fortified in the year of 1583 and by the end of the sixteenth century was the only possession of the Republic in Flanders. From this strategically important position, the Dutch could inflict much damage on the surrounding Spanish territory. Even more crucially, control of Ostend meant control of the coast. Therefore, in 1601, Albert decided to besiege the town, stating that he would spend eighteen years doing so if need be. The siege began on the 5th of July 1601 and became infamous for the heroism, bloodshed and sheer endurance of both sides. As Simoni says, 'among the many battles, sieges, naval encounters and all manner of other military engagements of the Eighty Years' War, none was, and perhaps is, more famous than the long drawn-out siege of Ostend in which the Spaniards assailed the unassailable and the Dutch defended the indefensible'.”. The battle of ostend ended up lasting approximately 3 years, 2 months, & 15 days. There were a total of 30,000 to 45,000 deaths on the dutch side & 60,000 to 70,000 deaths on the Spanish side. The ultimate outcome of the siege was that ostend fell, but the majority of the city was destroyed by this point so it ultimately worked in the Dutch favour. The entire reason that the Spanish wanted to capture the city was for its abundant resources & connection to the sea, so this effort became futile when the Spanish realized just exactly what happened to this city. Not only that, but what happened to the city due to the actions of their own. The Economic State Of Oostende, Belgium Ostend has a large tourist industry due to their winter festivals & their beautiful beach. There is unfortunately no released graph as to how much tourism contributes to the economy. Ostend also has a spectacular fish market, so commercial fishing is also quite common. They are also often the place for exports going out & imports coming in as they are the main harbour along the coast. They use the Euro in Ostend. Ostend also does not have a stock exchange that is specifically dedicated to ostend. There are unfortunately no public figures for the Ostendian economy that are accessible to the public.  Directories / Credits  The Explosion at Ostend, The Manchester Guardian and British Volunteer , 30 September 1826 University of Glasgowhttps:// www.gla.ac.uk › mar2004Siege of Ostend Journal Strategic Partnerships  Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa

This article is a part of our collection known as the Marine Hall Of Distinction. It is a different series from our main monthly series & has no connection to the main monthly series. In this special collection, we will discuss marine biologists who we feel have served marine biology & oceanography the most. We do this in order to commemorate these marine biologists & to show gratitude for everything they have contributed to our oceans. This collection has no relation to the main monthly series. This series is published on the 25th of every month, shortly after our article on the oceanic environment of a certain region on the 20th. Today’s marine biologist is Karl Friedrich Gustav Chun, more commonly known as Carl Chun. He is most well known for his work on the Valdivia Expedition of 1898, & his discovery of the Vampire Squid, a deep sea cephalopod. He was a university professor of marine sciences & biology. Across his career as a marine biologist, he taught classes at 3 german universities, participated in at least one scientific expedition, discovered an entirely new group of cephalopod, & published multiple scientific papers. Although he is most well known for his work relating to cephalopods, he was incredibly influential on planktonic organisms as well. In this article, we shall discuss the Education & Formative Years Of Karl Friedrich Gustav Chun, The Career & Later Life Of Karl Friedrich Gustav Chun & the Accomplishments, Achievements, Awards, & Honorables Of Karl Friedrich Gustav Chun. With that being said, let us delve into the life of one of the most important malacologists of the 20th century.  The Education & Formative Life Of Karl Friedrich Gustav Chun  Karl Friedrich Gustav Chun was born on October 1st, 1856 in Höchst, Germany. He was born to Gustav Chun. His interest in Zoology, Biology, & Marine Biology were sparked at a young age from visiting the Seneckenberg museum, & listening to various lectures. Aside from this, very little is known about his Childhood. Impassioned about the subject of zoology, he would get his bachelor degree of Zoology from the University of Göttingen, & his P.h.D in Zoology from the University of Leipzig in 1874. The Career & Later Life Of Karl Friedrich Gustav Chun  Upon graduating from university in 1878, he became an assistant to German zoologist Rudolf Leuckhart. He would continue his work under Leuckhart until 1883. His interest in marine biology was further spurred by his work at the Naples Zoological Station, where he researched & studied comb jellyfish, which he would later publish a monograph on. Soon after, in 1883, he became a professor at the German University of Königsberg, where he would remain until 1891. Shortly after becoming a professor, he married Lily Vogt, the daughter of Karl Vogt. They would go on to have two children together, Annie, born in 1885, & Lily, born in 1887. During his time at the University of Königsberg in 1888, he described Seasonal Vertical Migration, a process in which animals will stay at lower depths in the ocean for several months, then migrate further up as temperatures change. In 1891, he decided to move to Breslau, where he would continue being a professor & lecturer. In 1898, he would move back to Leipzig, & continue his Professorial work. Inspired by the British Challenger expedition that lasted from 1872 to 1876, he desired to host a deep sea expedition of his own. One of the widely accepted theories at the time, the Abyssus Theory, stated that life could not exist below 300 fathoms. Chun heavily disagreed with this, & felt that marine life had to exist in abundance in the deep ocean. Emboldened to prove this theory wrong, he presented the idea to the society for German Natural Scientists & Doctors in 1897, who gladly gave him the funding necessary for such a study. The steam ship known as the SS Valdivia was commissioned for the project, & on August 1st of 1898, the ship set sail from Hamburg Germany. On this expedition, he would discover the Vampire Squid in the Southern Hemisphere. Additionally, he found many other interesting deep sea organisms, ranging from squid to fish. Many of these species were bioluminescent, a trait previously not well studied. A publication detailing all of the information about the voyage was collected in a 24 volume book, & published in 1940. Unfortunately in 1908, a trophy head of a deer fell onto him, injuring him. Although he made a full recovery from this injury, he would pass away soon after as a result of a Heart Condition. He passed away on April 1st, 1914. His contributions to marine biology will never be forgotten, & will forever be appreciated.  The Achievements, Accomplishments, Awards, & Honourables Of Karl Friedrich Gustav Chun He was awarded the Cothenius Medal  from the German Academy of Sciences Leopoldina.  He disproved the Abyssus ocean theory. He discovered an entirely new subcategory of cephalopods & a new species of cephalopod named Vampyroteuthis Infernalis (Vampire Squid).  Directories / Credits Citation No. 1: “Carl Chun - The Man With A Deep Insight”, Written by Greta Paulsdottir, & Published on February 24th, 2021. Published by the Polar Journal. Retrieval Date: May 15th, 2024.  https://polarjournal.ch/en/2021/02/24/carl-chun-the-man-with-a-deep-insight/ Citation No. 2: “The Valdivia Expedition, Carl Chun's diving into the deep sea”, Written by Unknown & Published on June 3rd, 2020. Published by Senses Atlas. Retrieval Date: May 15th, 2024.  https://www.sensesatlas.com/the-valdivia-expedition-carl-chuns-diving-into-the-deep-see/ Citation No. 3: “Pioneers of plankton research: Carl Chun (1852–1914)”, Written by John R. Dolan, & Published in December of 2023. Published by the Journal Of Plankton Research. Retrieval Date: May 15th, 2024.  https://academic.oup.com/plankt/article/45/6/777/7252282 Citation No. 4: “Chun, Karl Friedrich Gustav”, Written by Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published by Hessen. Retrieval Date: May 15th, 2024.  https://www.lagis-hessen.de/pnd/116516828 Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

The Oceans Surrounding Ostend Beach, Belgium Today's article will discuss the oceans surrounding Ostend Beach, Belgium. Ostend Beach is in the northern area of Belgium. It is touching the southern area of the North Sea. It is on the mainland & is not an island. Ostend Beach is specifically part of the town known as Ostend. For the historical part of this month’s series, the history of the town will be studied instead of the beach itself. Ostend is approximately 61.66 miles from (70.957061 miles or 114.19432 kilometers) from the island of Great Britain. The actual name of the city is Oostende. This translates from German into English as “East End”. This is a bit confusing as Ostend Beach is in the northeastern area of Belgium. The German-speaking population of Belgium is in the western area, not the area where Ostend Beach is. This leads many to wonder how the town was named. It is currently considered to be one of the most beautiful beaches in all of Belgium. It is also one of the most well-known beaches in Belgium because of how beautiful it is & active marine life. Many recreational activities take place around this area such as swimming, boating, & fishing. There are many cetaceans that live in this area because they they do not have much competition. Many other fish or competitors for food are not found in this area, which led to a large amount of porpoises, dolphins, & whales. There are currently no known endemic marine animals to Oostende, Belgium at this time. Thanks to the warm water currents of Belgium, coral could theoretically survive there. Coral reefs have yet to be discovered in Belgian waters. In this article, we will discuss the salinity, temperature, marine geography & terrain, the most important marine ecosystems, the documented marine flora & fauna, & the utilization of marine resources of Ostend, Belgium. With that being said, let us delve into the most scenic & majestic areas of Belgium. The Salinity, Tides, Temperatures, Marine Geography, & Basic Information Of Ostend Beach  The Salinity of Belgium has been documented as being between 34 & 35.5 parts per thousand. Since the island is in the Atlantic, it will most likely have a higher salinity than say the Pacific Ocean or the Indian Ocean. Salt deposits / Brine Pools may be more common around the island due to the higher salinity. However, the existence of brine pools around the island has not been proven. The salinity levels of the Atlantic Ocean at any given time are between 35.5 & 34.5 parts per thousand. Salinity is measured in 1,000 grams of water. For every 1000 grams of water, there will be a certain number of grams that are pure salt. This is how salinity or saline level is measured. There are also no ongoing factors that would lead to the salinity level being altered. The oceanic temperature of the waters surrounding Oostende can be found on a plethora of web pages, but the most user-friendly are https://seatemperature.net , // www.surf-forecast.com , www.seatemperatu.re , & finally // www.watertemperature.org . The lowest temperatures are usually between 45° & 40° Fahrenheit (7.22222° to 4.44444° Celsius). The tidal charts can also be found on a few of these websites. The tides usually never get over 5.955792 meters (19.54 feet) high. The surf is not dangerously high & there is not much riptide. There are a few currents surrounding the beach area, however, they are more than a mile off the coast. Recreational activities such as fishing are increasingly popular. Individual boating does not seem to be very common however it takes place. Swimming is also common, however, it is only permitted in certain areas of the beach. The oceanic floor of the areas around Oostende usually consists of rock, sand, or seagrass. Seamounts are not common & the land is usually flat at the bottom. The deepest oceanic point is within 5 Nautical / Marine miles (5.7539 miles or 9.26 kilometers). Water pollution is also not an issue & the water is perfectly safe to swim in, the only concern would be the temperature of the water being so cold. There are currently 23 marine protected areas around Belgium, the largest of which takes up approximately 34% of Belgium's enter oceanic area.  The Most Prominent Marine Ecosystems Of Ostend Beach Belgium  Ecosystem No. 1: Seagrass Meadows  The seagrasses around Belgium are in abundance & often form large meadows around the coast. The main species of seagrasses that are present are Zostera marina & Zostera noltii. Zostera Noltii is more commonly found & is more present, this may be due to the nutrients that are necessary for these 2 seagrasses to grow & there being a deficiency in some of said nutrients. This ecosystem is often used as a nursery, hunting ground, & breeding ground. It is extremely fragile as this is usually where the smaller animals will reside. These seagrasses are in abundance & often embellish the coastlines. Tidal Marshes Sometimes the seagrasses will grow extremely close to the shoreline which creates a type of tidal marsh. These areas usually are not permanent due to humans trampling the seagrass. These areas usually have many different types of crustaceans. Usually, the type of grass that will compose this area is Zostera marina (seawrack). The Documented Marine Flora Of Ostend Beach   There are 2 species of seagrass documented in this specific area of Belgium, they are known as Zostera noltii (dwarf eelgrass) & Zostera marina (common eelgrass). Zostera Marina is found as deep as 2 meters (6.56168 feet) & makes up the majority of tidal marshes & shallow seagrass meadows. It is found as shallow as -12 meters. Zostera Noltii is the second species & it is found in deep areas. It usually is also not found strongly along the coastline. It is not found in tidal zones either. There are algae species in this area of Belgium however they are mostly unrecorded. However, Brown algae & Red algae have both been discovered in this area.  The Documented Marine Fauna Of Ostend  Beach There are many different species of marine fauna which are found throughout Belgium. Though Belgium has the shortest coast of any country that touches the North Sea, it still has much biodiversity. For the purposes of this article, we will not be discussing any types of plankton that exist in the area or water birds. Plankton species are extremely common in this area, however, they have yet to be identified by individual species. Many species that are able to survive in this area usually have large amounts of fat on their body so that they will not freeze to death. These 2 factors may contribute to the reason as to why so many baleen whales are found in the area. Now the most prominent marine species recorded around Ostend are as follows: Phocena Phocena (harbor porpoise), Halichoerus grypus (Atlantic grey seal), Phoca Vitulina (harbor seal), Balaenoptera acutorostrata (northern minke whale), Tursiops truncantus (common bottlenose dolphin), Cyprinus carpio (Eurasian carp), Perca fluviatilis (European perch), Sander lucioperca (Zander), Salmo Trutta (brown trout), Anguilla Anguilla (European eel), Esox lucius (northern pike), Chondrostroma nasus (Common nase / sneep ), Salmo salar (Atlantic salmon), & finally Oncorhynchus mykiss (rainbow trout).   How The Marine Resources Of Ostend Beach Were Utilized & How That Affected The Environment Of Ostend Beach  Oftentimes, the waters of Belgium were used for commercial fishing. Fishermen would primarily fish for trout & Atlantic salmon however occasionally they could have fished for other species as well. Personal fishing is also incredibly common. Ecotourism is also a popular activity that takes place in Belgian waters due to there being a large population of cetaceans. Usually, ecotourism in Belgium is ethical & does not harm the environment but sometimes it can negatively affect the environment. However it usually positively affects the environment because the ecotourist's money usually goes into maintaining the environment. Marine research is also common & several European marine laboratories are located along Belgium's coastline.   Directories / Credits  1. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10085385/ 2. ttps:// mpatlas.org/countries/BEL   3. marine.ucsc.eduhttps:// marine.ucsc.edu › target › tar...Zostera | MARINe 4. https://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=495082   5. https://www.naturalsciences.be/en/news/item/21440/   6. https://www.marinespecies.org/berms/   7. http://www.marinemammals.be/   Strategic Partnerships  Reel Guppy Outdoors  SharkedSkooler Our Loyal Patrons   Ms. Ochoa

This article is a part of our second newsletter titled, The Persaud Catalogue Scientific Journal of Marine Biology. In this journal, we will publish information concerning the various marine flora & fauna of certain places. This newsletter will publish sporadically, & not on a timed basis like The Persaud Catalog. This journal is in affiliation with The Persaud Catalog, however it is a separate entity.  In todays article, we will catalog the various species of seagrass found in & around Malibu Lagoon State Beach. On May 13th, we sent 2 field agents to Malibu Lagoon State Beach. These Field Agents have collected samples of the seaweed species that were found, & these samples were studied. In this article, we shall discuss the marine flora surrounding Malibu Lagoon State Beach. We will state the density of these species, the place where it was found the most, & a detailed description of the species. Please note that this was done with the correct permits, do not attempt to imitate this survey without being aware of the permits necessary to do so. This is the second survey of 5 survey’s in Malibu Lagoon that will be taken over the next 5 years. In May of 2023, May of 2024, May of 2025, May of 2026, & May of 2027, we will take samples of the seagrass & seaweed surrounding Malibu Lagoon State Beach. At the end of these 5 years, we will collect & organize the data & publish a finalized document.  The Results Of The Survey Please note that all of these results were taken between 4:36 PM on May 13th, & 4:37 on May 13th. The tidal positioning at this time may influence the results of this survey.  Species No. 1: Corallinales (Red Coralline Algae)  The first kind of marine flora that we discovered along the beach was Red Coralline Algae. Our specimen was discovered at 34°1’53” North & 118°40’53” West, & was approximately 2 inches (5.08 centimeters) long, as well as 1 inch (2.54 centimeters) wide. This species was found the least often along the beach, & was primarily found toward the northeastern side of the beach. Due to there being at least 2 different taxonomic families of Coraline Algae that grow in the nearby area, it is not clear which species this specimen belongs to. Red Coralline Algae is extremely important to the marine ecosystems of California, as they provide food & shelter to many marine animals. When growing in the wild, they grow upright in large patches, or grow against rocks. They appear purple or pink, have look similar to rough coral. Typically, individuals in this species will reach 8 inches in length at maturity.  Species No. 2: Zostera Marina (Sea Wrack / Common Eelgrass)  Eelgrass was very commonly found on this beach, with a concentration towards the northeastern area of the beach. Our specimen was found at 34°1’53” North & 118°40’53” West, & was approximately 27 inches (68.58 centimeters) long, as well as 0.5 centimeters (0.19685 inches) wide. This species usually grows in water of 10 meters (32.8084 feet) or less. Eelgrass is very recognizable as it has long bright green blades, & is the only species in the Zostera Genus along Californias coast. Sea Wrack usually grows in meadows, & it often consumed by waterfowl. It is extremely important to the coastal ecosystem as they provide a natural spawning area for many different marine species. This species is distributed from Alaska, to Baja California. This species has existed for at least 8 million years, & has always been fundamental to California’s estuarine ecosystems.  Species No. 3: Macrocystis Pyfiera (Giant Kelp / Bladder Kelp) Giant Kelp was found equally as frequently as Eelgrass along the coastline, with a similar concentration toward the north eastern area of the beach. Our specimen was found at 34°1’53” North & 118°40’53” West & approximately 16.5 inches (41.91 centimeters) long, & 1 centimeter (0.393701 inches) wide. While Macrocystis Pyfiera is technically not a seagrass or a seaweed, it will still be included for the purposes of this article. Giant Kelp is a protist, or a heterokont, meaning that it is not a plant, animal, or fungus. Giant kelp is usually a brownish green colour, with bumpy thin leaves that are more then an inch wide, & bulbous air filled fruit that make them float up in the ocean. Under optimal conditions, Giant kelp can grow to 175 feet long (53.34 meters) however it usually only reaches 100 feet. Shockingly, they can grow up to 2 feet (0.6096 meters) every day, a growth rate only matched by bamboo. Giant kelp is found from Alaska to Baja California, & is also found in Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, & certain parts of South America. They grow in rocky areas, deeper then 20 feet (6.096 meter).  Strategic Partnerships  Reel Guppy Outdoors SharkedSkooler Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

Ode To Oceanography: An Antique Nautical Chart Of The Baltic Sea This Article is the eleventh installment in the Ode To Oceanography Series. This series will publish on the 15th of every month, until we run out of antique nautical maps to analyze, though that will not be for many decades. Once that happens, we will keep the series running, but we will change the article format. In these articles, will take an antique nautical map & analyze it in its entirety. These maps will not strictly be on open oceanic waters, they may be on rivers or occasionally, bays. We will also discuss the methods that may have been used to make the map, considering the period, & the country of origin. These maps will come from a variety of sources, though they will mainly come from Maps Of Antiquity, a wonderful New England map shop. These maps will come from varying periods, & will not be in any particular historical order. Today’s map is an antique map of the Baltic Sea. The Baltic Sea is approximately 149,000 square miles (385,908.228 Square Kilometers), & 1,000 miles (1609.34 kilometers) long. The primary country on this map is Sweden, but part of the German Coast can be seen. There is slight yellowing on the right-hand side of the Map, which is due to the oxidation caused by the cellulose in the paper. There is also slight curling in the corners of the map, but that does not obscure any of the maps. The dimensions of the chart are 37.5 inches (95.25 centimeters) long, & 23 inches (58.42 centimeters) wide. In this article, we will discuss the map itself & the translation of certain sections of the map, & a surface-level analysis of this antique nautical map. With that being said let us delve into the Baltic Sea. The Map Itself  Since this map is in English, it does not need to be translated. This map is extremely detailed, & fairly large. The map is also in very good condition considering the fact that it is over 130 years old. The map is uncolored, & does not seem to have any faded color. This map has many different names of towns along both the Swedish & German Coast, as well as a few different islands on it. Coves, bays, & inlets, however, are not labeled or featured on the chart. Topographical features such as mountains, are not outlined on this map. An Analysis Of The Nautical Chart This map was made in 1872. It is unknown where exactly this map was found. This map was made for the British Admiralty, by the British Admiralty, though It is unclear what exactly this map was used for in the British Admiralty. This map encompasses the majority of the Swedish Coast, & parts of the Baltic Coast of Germany. This map isn’t known to be a part of any particular nautical collection. Since the chart was printed in the 1870’s, it was most likely made through the lithographic method. In the lithographic method, the artist will draw directly onto a printing surface, such as zinc, or copper, until they are satisfied with the drawing. After this, the surface will be covered with a chemical etch, which will bond it to the surface. With this process, the blank areas will attract moisture to the plate & repel the lithographic ink, while the areas that are drawn on will hold the ink. Water is then wiped onto the unpainted areas to help prevent the ink from deviating. After the map wanted is inked, the paper is laid over it & covered with a tympan, & the tympan is pressed down. Finally, these materials pass through the scraper bar of the litho press. Afterward, an exact copy of whatever was supposed to be printed is revealed. Directories / Charts All credit for this map analyzed today goes to Maps Of Antiquity, a wonderful New England map shop. To purchase this map, any other maps, or any other cartographic objects, please visit mapsofantiquity.com . To be clear, this is not an advertisement for Maps Of Antiquity, as we do not have a partnership with them. Strategic Partnerships  Reel Guppy Outdoors  SharkedSkooler Our Loyal Patrons  Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa

The Documented History Of Nevis, Saint Kitts & Nevis Today's article will discuss the history of the island known as Nevis. Saint Nevis is an island that exists in the Caribbean. It is a part of the country known as the Federation of Saint Kitts & Nevis. Nevis is the smaller of the 2 islands that are from the country of Saint Kitts & Nevis. It is a part of the lesser Antilles. It is a part of the archipelago group known as the Leeward Islands. Nevis is approximately 383.31 Nautical / Marine miles from its closest point to mainland South America, specifically the country of Venezuela. It is also approximately 1128.85 Nautical / Marine Miles from the State of Florida, United States Of America.  The ocean that surrounds Nevis is the Atlantic. It rests in the Caribbean Sea. The island is in the vague shape of a circle, which is incredibly uncommon. The island is well known for its beautiful beaches & high amount of exotic marine life. The island was formed via the Atlantic plate & North American plate moving towards each other & eventually colliding. The island was created approximately 3.45 million years ago. The capital of the island is known as Charleston. Charleston just so happens to also be the largest city on the island. However, this is not the capital of the country. The capital of the country is known as Basseterre & it exists on the sister island of Saint Kitts. They are a part of the commonwealth still. The island is approximately 336.7 square miles (872.049 square kilometers). The current population of the island is approximately 11,108. This number was found during a 2011 census. The highest elevation on the island is known as Nevis Peak. It is approximately 3,232 feet (985.1136 meters) high. It is the dormant remnant of an ancient stratovolcano. There are approximately 5 designated bays around the island. There are approximately 5 administrative divisions on Nevis. These administrative zones are known as Parishes. The names of these parishes as as follows in order from largest to smallest; Saint James Windward, Saint John Figtree, Saint George Gingerland, Saint Tomas Lowland, & Saint Paul Charleston. In this article we will discuss the discovery & documented history of Nevis as a whole, The known aboriginals of Nevis, the most destructive man-caused & natural disasters of Nevis, & finally a segment on the Saint Kittian & Nevisian economies. With that being said, let us delve into the paradise island of Nevis. The Documented History Of Nevis, Saint Kitts & Nevis Before Colonization The first natives who arrived on the island were the Ciboney. They originated from the islands of Hispaniola & Cuba. They arrived approximately 3,000 years ago (Or approximately 980 B.C.). They lacked a distinct pottery style making their timeline uncertain. The Arawaks arrived much later in approximately 800 A.D. The Caribs arrived within the following years & had taken over Saint Kitts & Nevis by the time of the Spanish invasion. The peak Population on the island most likely fell between 500 A.D & 600 A.D. The natives collectively called the island Oualie, which translates to “Land Of Beautiful Waters”. After Colonization Please note that this will only involve the history of Nevis, not Saint Kitts. The 15th Century Christopher Columbus noted the island on his second voyage through the Caribbean. He did not make landfall, however he did see the island. He noted its appearance down on the dates of November 11th, 1432 & November 13th, 1432. At first, he named Saint Kitts “Saint George” & Nevis “San Martin”. The 16th Century An English Privateer & seaman known as Sir Francis Duke noted a visit to the island around the 25th of December 1585. The 17th Century The next time the island had contact with the Europeans was in 1603. This was by English Captain & mariner Bartholomew Gilbert. His visit was to gather, a certain type of Caribbean wood known as Ligum Vitae (Guayacan). After this he was documented to have sailed to Saint Kitts. He stayed for approximately 2 weeks & in this short period gathered 20 tons of the aforementioned wood. In 1607, English Captain & Colonial governor John Smith stopped at Nevis for five days on his way to founding the first successful settlement in the U.S. state of Virginia. Captain Smith wrote about the many hot springs that exist in Nevis, whose waters had mystical curative abilities against skin diseases & bad health. It is unlikely that these waters healing properties. English explorer Robert Harcourt stopped at Nevis in 1608. The length of his stay was undocumented & his reason for staying was also undocumented. The island legally became a British Colony in the year 1620. It was known as the Colony Of Nevis. However, actual European settlement did not occur until 1628. The reason for this delay if there was one, remains unknown. In the year 1628, Anthony Hilton moved from nearby Saint Kitts following a murder plot against him. The exact reason for this murder plot is unspecified. 80 other settlers accompanied him, soon boosted by a further 100 settlers from London who had initially hoped to settle on the island of Barbuda. Hilton became the first Governor of Nevis. After the Treaty of Madrid in 1670 between Spain & England, Nevis became the seat of the British colony & the Admiralty Court also sat in Nevis. Between the years 1675 & 1730, the island was the headquarters for the slave trade for the Leeward Islands, with approximately 6,000–7,000 enslaved West Africans passing through en route to other islands each year. It would remain like this for quite some time. The Royal African Company brought all its ships through Nevis. This effectively made Nevis a sort of exchange point or way station for incoming ships to North America. A census in the year 1678 shows a community of Irish People as being 22% of the population. They either existed as either indentured servants or freemen. Due to the profitable slave trade on the island & the high quality of Nevisian sugar cane, Nevis soon became a dominant source of wealth for Great Britain & the slave-owning British plantocracy. When the Leeward Isles were separated from Barbados in the year 1671, Nevis became the seat of the Leeward Islands British colony. It was at this point that the island was given the nickname "Queen of the Caribees". It remained the colonial capital for the Leeward Islands until the seat was transferred to Antigua for military reasons in 1698. During this period, Nevis was the richest of the British Leeward Islands. Nevis soon outranked larger islands like Jamaica in sugar production in the late 17th century. The planters' wealth on the island is evident in the tax records preserved in the Calendar State Papers in the British Colonial Office Public Records, where the amount of tax collected on the Leeward Islands was recorded. The sums recorded for 1676 as "head tax on slaves", a tax payable in sugar, amounted to 384,600 pounds in Nevis, as opposed to 67,000 each in Antigua & Saint Kitts, 62,500 in Montserrat, & 5,500 total in the other five islands. The enslaved families on Nevis formed the large labor force required to work the sugar plantations. After the 1650s, the supply of white indentured servants began to dry up due to increased wages in England & less incentive to migrate to the colonies. By the end of the 17th century, the population of Nevis consisted of a small wealthy planter elite in control, a marginal population of poor Whites, a great majority of African-descended slaves, and an unknown number of Maroons. The “Maroons” were the names of escaped African slaves who were living in the mountains. In 1780, 90% of the 10,000 people living on Nevis were African. Some of the maroons joined with the few remaining Arawakan groups in Nevis to form a resistance force. Memories of the Nevisian maroons' struggle under the plantation system are preserved in place names such as Maroon Hill, an early center of resistance. The great wealth generated by the colonies of the West Indies led to wars among Spain, Britain, & France. These wars were usually for ownership of these islands to cultivate sugar on the islands. The formation of the United States can be said to be a partial by-product of these wars, & the strategic trade aims that often ignored North America. Three privateers were employed by the British Crown to help protect ships in Nevisian waters. During the 17th century, the French, based on Saint Kitts, launched many attacks on Nevis. These attacks were occasionally assisted by the few remaining Arawakan Groups. In the year 1667, these Arawakan groups sent a large fleet of dug-out canoes along in support. In the same year, a Franco-Dutch invasion fleet was repelled off Nevis by an English fleet. Letters & other records from the era indicate that the English on Nevis hated & feared the Amerindians. This was a result of racism towards the Natives. This hatred also may have been perpetuated by the Spanish spreading the idea that they practiced cannibalism. In 1674 & 1683, they participated in attacks on Arawakan villages in Dominica & Saint Vincent, despite a lack of official approval from the crown for this attack. On Nevis, the English built what is now known as Fort Charles & a series of smaller fortifications to aid in defending the island. This included Saddle Hill Battery, built in 1740 to replace a deodand on Nevis Peak. The 18th Century In 1706 Pierre Le Moyne d’Iberville, the French Canadian founder of the U.S state  Louisiana in North America, decided to drive the English out of Nevis & thus also stop pirate attacks on French ships; he considered Nevis the region's headquarters for piracy against French trade. During d'Iberville's invasion of Nevis, French buccaneers were used in the front line, infamous for being ruthless killers after the pillaging during the wars with Spain where they gained a reputation for torturing and murdering non-combatants. In the face of the invading force, the English militiamen of Nevis fled. Some plantation owners burned the plantations, rather than letting the French have them, & they proceeded to hide in the mountains. It was the enslaved Africans who held the French at bay by taking up arms to defend their families & the island. The slave quarters had been looted and burned as well, as the main reward promised to the men fighting on the French side in the attack was the right to capture as many slaves as possible for the purpose of reselling them in Martinique. During the fighting, approximately 3,400 enslaved Nevisians were captured and sent off to Martinique. About approximately 1,000 more, poorly armed & militarily untrained, held the French troops at bay, by "murderous fire" according to an eyewitness account by an English militiaman. He wrote that "the slave's brave behavior & defense there shamed what some of their masters did, & they do not shrink to tell us so.” After 18 days of fighting, the French were driven off the island. Among the Nevisian men, women & children carried away on d'Iberville's ships, six ended up in Louisiana, the first persons of African descent to arrive there. One consequence of the French attack was a collapsed sugar industry & during the ensuing hardship on Nevis, small plots of land on the plantations were made available to the enslaved families in order to control the loss of life due to starvation. With less profitability for the absentee plantation owners, the import of food supplies for the plantation workers dwindled. Between 1776 & 1783, when the food supplies failed to arrive altogether due to the rebellion in North America, 300–400 enslaved Nevisians were starved to death. A four-year apprenticeship program followed the abolishment of slavery on the plantations. In spite of the continued use of the labor force, the Nevisian slave owners were paid over £150,000 in compensation from the British Government for the loss of property, whereas the enslaved families received nothing for 200 years of labor. One of the wealthiest planter families in Nevis, the Pinneys of Mountravers Plantation, claimed £36,396 (equivalent to approximately 4,019,385.35£ in 2021) in compensation for the slaves on the family-owned plantations around the Caribbean. Because of the early distribution of plots &  because many of the planters departed from the island when sugar cultivation became unprofitable, a relatively large percentage of Nevisians already owned or controlled land at emancipation. Others settled on crown land. This early development of a society with a majority of small, landowning farmers & entrepreneurs created a stronger middle class in Nevis than in Saint Kitts, where the sugar industry continued until 2006. Even though the 15 families in the wealthy planter elite no longer control the arable land, Saint Kitts still has a large, landless working-class population. The 19th Century On the 1st of August 1834, slavery was officially abolished in the British Empire. In Nevis, 8,815 slaves were freed. The first Monday in August is celebrated as Emancipation Day & is part of the annual Nevis Culturama festival. The population had reached 7,470 by 1842. Nevis was united with Saint Kitts & Anguilla in the year 1882, & they became an associated state. with full internal autonomy in 1967. Anguilla went on to secede in 1971. The 20th Century Before 1967, the local government of Saint Kitts was also the government of Nevis and Anguilla. Nevis had two seats and Anguilla one seat in the government. The economic and infrastructural development of the two smaller islands was not a priority to the colonial federal government. Together, Saint Kitts & Nevis became independent on 19 September 1983. On 10 August 1998, a referendum on Nevis to separate from Saint Kitts had 2,427 votes in favor & 1,498 against, falling short of the two-thirds majority needed. When the hospital in Charlestown was destroyed in a hurricane in 1899, planting of trees in the squares of Saint Kitts and refurbishing of government buildings, also in Saint Kitts, took precedence over the rebuilding of the only hospital in Nevis. After five years without any proper medical facilities, the leaders in Nevis initiated a campaign, threatening to seek independence from Saint Kitts. The British Administrator in Saint Kitts, Charles Cox, was unmoved. He stated that Nevis did not need a hospital since there had been no significant rise in the number of deaths during the time Nevisians had been without a hospital. Therefore, no action was needed on behalf of the government, & besides, Cox continued, the Legislative Council regarded "Nevis and Anguilla as a drag on Saint Kitts & would willingly see a separation". A letter of complaint to the metropolitan British Foreign Office gave the result & the federal government in Saint Kitts was ordered by their superiors in London to take speedy action. The Legislative Council took another five years to consider their options. The final decision by the federal government was to not rebuild the old hospital after all but to instead convert the old Government House in Nevis into a hospital, named Alexandra Hospital after Queen Alexandra, wife of King Edward VII. A majority of the funds assigned for the hospital could thus be spent on the construction of a new official residence in Nevis. Electricity was introduced in Nevis in 1954 when two generators were shipped in to provide electricity to the area around Charlestown. In this regard, Nevis fared better than Anguilla, where there were no paved roads, no electricity & no telephones until 1967. However, electricity did not become available island-wide on Nevis until 1971. After d'Iberville's invasion in 1704, records show Nevis' sugar industry in ruins & a decimated population begging the English Parliament & relatives for loans & monetary assistance to stave off island-wide starvation. The sugar industry on the island never fully recovered & during the general depression that followed the loss of the West Indian sugar monopoly, Nevis fell on hard times & the island became one of the poorest in the region. The island remained poorer than Saint Kitts until 1991 when the fiscal performance of Nevis edged ahead of the fiscal performance of Saint Kitts for the first time since the French invasion. An ambitious infrastructure development programme was introduced in the early 2000s which included a transformation of the Charlestown port, the construction of a new deep-water harbor, the resurfacing &  widening of the Island Main Road, a new airport terminal & control tower, as well as a major airport expansion, which required the relocation of an entire village in order to make room for the runway extension. Modernized classrooms & better-equipped schools, as well as improvements in the educational system, have contributed to a leap in academic performance on the island. The pass rate among the Nevisian students sitting for the Caribbean Examination Council (CXC) exams, the Cambridge General Certificate of Education Examination (GCE) & the Caribbean Advance Proficiency Examinations is now consistently among the highest in the English-speaking Caribbean. The Documented Aboriginal Tribes Of Saint Kitts & Nevis The Carib / Kalingo Indigenous Peoples The Caribs of Nevis were an indigenous Amerindian of the Caribbean lesser Antilles. They are also known as the Kalingo or Kalina. They also lived in South America. They spoke a language that is modernly known as Island Carib which is classified as a highly endangered language. They were one of the least peaceful tribes in the Caribbean. They had many warlike tactics & were believed to have mandatory combat training. They were taller, bulkier, & stronger than the Arawaks due to the emphasis on being a warrior & being able to defend their home. They utilized their marine resources often & had a strong fishing industry. Fish was one of the most common foods, they also were believed to have bred some fish. They had large boats which were most similar to a modern-day Canoe, these boats could hold up to 12 persons. However, their largest warships could hold up to 100 persons. These boats looked similar to a modern-day dugout canoe. However, they also could use & build sails. They used these to raid the Arawaks as well as to fish. They also utilized the ocean in other ways often. They fought with the other tribes of The lesser Antilles such as the Arawaks who were relatively peaceful. They hunted mammals as well. They revered the bones of their elders or family members & they burnt off fat from their enemies or prisoners of war during battle rituals. They were labeled as cannibals & savages by the Spanish & British on their individual conquests, this was in an effort to justify conquering their lands & enslaving them. The modern-day word cannibal originates from the word Carib due to their alleged cannibalistic practices. They invented certain types of primitive barbecues as well which they most likely used to barbecue the Arawaks. However, if they were cannibalistic they did not consume the entire body. Allegedly, their reasoning for this was that if they consumed a little bit of their enemy after they were dead, they would assume the characteristics of that person. Also, there is evidence to believe that early Caribs were not cannibals. They were on average approximately 5 feet 5 inches. They had a brown hue to their skin similar to that of a modern-day Latin American person. They did not appear to wear clothing of any kind. The women would paint their skin with a red dye known as Roucou which is made from the extract of the seeds of the Achiote tree. The women also circled their eyes with black pigment. The males would also paint their bodies and on occasion wore feathered headdresses, jewelry & piercings of all kinds through their lips, and large hoop jewelry through their noses. Nose piercings were fairly common among both genders. The males also wore the Caracoli which was a necklace of small bones along with the teeth of defeated enemies from which a crescent-shaped bone-carved ornament was suspended. The Caracoli necklace was worn to represent the courage of the wearer, it was typically worn by men & there isn’t much evidence that it was worn by women. The women also commonly lived in different houses from the men. Arts were common among the Caribs. Basket weaving was a common type of art that was done both for function & for art. Pottery was quite common among Caribs as well. They had many different structural styles of pottery. It is also important to note that most men spoke Island Carib languages, however, women spoke mostly Arawakan languages. They often used bows & arrows when hunting or fighting. This weaponry unfortunately was not very helpful during the initial British Invasion. However, their boats were. They were infamous for using one of their warships to catch European boats. This is one of the main reasons why Saint Lucia wasn’t colonized for such a long time. They did not have a social or societal construct & did not have any form of government. Little is known about their religion however it is believed that they practiced polytheism. The Arawak Indigenous Peoples The Arawak Indigenous peoples existed throughout the lesser Antilles & heavily throughout northern South America. They were also known as the Taino people. They spoke many different dialects of Arawaken languages. They were quite peaceful & often avoided to engage in combat. They mostly only fought in defense or if they were being directly threatened. They often did not fight with other Arawak populations. They often practiced farming of corn, beans, pepper, sweet potatoes, ground nuts, & cassava. They also practiced fishing with nets & spearfishing. They used weaving techniques to build the nets. They also bred their fish in individual ponds. They hunted any animals that were available using spears, bows, & blow guns. They, however, did not use the pelts to make clothes. Most of the time Arawaks stood naked, with men occasionally wearing loincloths. The women wore short skirts & beaded shell necklaces. They also did not make shoes of any kind. On occasion, they would paint their bodies various colors such as black, white, or red. They were described as being of medium height by Columbus, which most likely means approximately 5 feet & 3 inches. They also generally were quite slim in build. Their skin was a dark tanned colour. Their hair was a black color & was coarse. They often wore jewelry & ornaments on their neck, ears, lips, & noses. These ornaments varied in material however they were often made with clay, shell, or cotton. Some of these ornaments were braided into hair & used as hair pieces as well. They did have social & societal constructs, with each group of Arawaks having a chief. For fun & religious purposes, they had festivals. These festivals entailed singing, dancing, & eating food with the community. They had instruments such as wooden gongs, reed pipes, & certain types of drums. They also had a kind of primitive oven which was used to bake small flat cakes. Games were also a common pastime of them, one game they invented was a ball game called Batos. Their religion was polytheistic & their gods were called Zemi. These Zemi would control various sectors of the known universe. The Ciboney Indigenous People The Ciboney indigenous peoples lived throughout the Caribbean. They lived throughout Cuba & as well as the greater & lesser Antilles. They were also known as the Siboney. Their language was unknown & it a language was an isolate. They often stayed out of the way & lived on the coastlines. Their ambitions in relation to war & peace are unknown. They did not farm anything to our knowledge, instead opting to hunt & gather their supplies. They did not write anything down, so extremely little is known about them as the majority of them were gone before the Europeans arrived. Some of their primary sources of food were shellfish, turtles, & certain available island rodents. They also lacked in arts such as pottery & weaving. They may have originated from southern America in the areas of modern-day Venezuela. If they were, they would have migrated to Cuba. Alternatively, they may have originated from the southern areas of modern-day Florida. However, they did not have very good maritime technologies. The Most Destructive Man-Caused & Natural Disasters Of Saint Kitts & Nevis No. 1 Christena Disaster Of Nevis The Christena disaster was a ferryboat disaster that occurred on the 1st of August 1970. A specific time for this disaster was not given. This disaster involved a ferryboat that ended up causing 233 casualties. This ferryboat was a ferryboat that operated from Basseterre to Charleston. At this point, the boat had no known malformations that would cause the vessel to collapse or stop working effectively. On the afternoon of Saturday, August the 1st 1970, the ferry boat was overloaded on her final run of the day from St. Kitts to Nevis. The passenger capacity was 155, but that afternoon the Christena had approximately 320 people on board. This may have had a causal relationship with what ended up happening. When the boat was half a mile off Nags Head which is in the southern area of Saint Kitts, & entering the rougher seas that line up with the channel between the two islands, the ferry boat took on water and sank. Unfortunately, there were only 91 survivors. The great majority of those were people that had to be rescued. After this point 57 bodies were retrieved from the vessel after sinking, these 57 were identified. 66 other bodies were retrieved from the wreckage however these were unable to be identified. These bodies remain unknown to this day. Including all survivors & bodies carved from the wreckage, there are approximately 214 bodies accounted for. This leaves 106 bodies unaccounted for. No. 2 Great Hurricane Of 1780 The great hurricane of 1780 is the deadliest Atlantic hurricane on record if we are going by total fatalities. This hurricane lasted from October 9th, 1780 to October 20th, 1780. It is estimated that approximately 22,000 people died from this hurricane. This hurricane passed through the Lesser Antilles area. This was non-arguably the worst hurricane to hit Nevis. The storm passed through the islands from October 10th to 16th. Unfortunately, very little is documented about this hurricane due to the official Atlantic hurricane database only going as far back as 1851. It is estimated that this hurricane was a category 5. The highest wind speed for this hurricane was 200 miles (321.869 kilometers per hour) per hour. The hurricane was most concentrated in the area of the French Islands, it killed approximately 9,000 people throughout the French Isles. No. 3 Hurricane Irma Hurricane Irma was an extremely powerful Cape Verde Atlantic hurricane that lasted from August 30th, 2017 through September 13th, 2017. Hurricane Irma was a category 5 Atlantic Hurricane. There were a total of 134 fatalities caused by this hurricane. 52 of these fatalities were direct & 82 of them were not. The highest winds from this hurricane were 180 miles (289.682 kilometers per hour) per hour. It was the fifth costliest Atlantic hurricane in all of the Atlantic hurricane Databases' history. The Economic State Of Saint Kitts & Nevis The economic state of Nevis is relatively stable however the economy may not be in the best shape. Due to hurricanes, Nevis is severely damaged every year & this caused the Nevisian government to bleed money. The currency that is used in Saint Kitts & Nevis is the Eastern Caribbean Dollar or the XCD. As of 2018, we have seen a 4.6% economic growth. Their GDP per capita is 17,513$ as of 2018. Their GDP by sector is 3.5% agriculture, 25.8% industry, & finally 70.7% services. Their current labor force is approximately made up of 18,172$ people. The island has a 4.5% unemployment rate. Their main industries are currently tourism, cotton, salt, copra, clothing, footwear, beverages, light manufacturing, & finally component assembly for export. Their main export partners are the United States Of America (69%), Germany (8%), & finally Italy (5%). Their current gross external debt is 314 million USD. Directories / Credits https://www.britannica.com/place/Saint-Kitts-and-Nevis/History Hubbard, Vincent K. (2002). Swords, Ships & Sugar: History of Nevis. Corvallis, Oregon: Premiere, ISBN   1-891519-05-0 , pp. 20–23 (Captain Gilbert, Captain Smith), 25 (pearl diving), 41–44 (name Dulcina, treaty with Spain, first settlement), 69–70 (privateers, Captain Francis), 79–85 (slave trade, Royal African Company, Queen of the Caribees), 86–102 (Caribs), 113–120 (d'Iberville, buccaneers), 138–139 (Great Britain's wealth derived from West Indian sugar and slave trade, 1776 starvation), 194–195 (Alexandra Hospital), 211–223 (electricity, Anguilla in 1967, OECD blacklist). The Prehistoric Settlement Pattern of Nevis, West Indies". Journal of Field Archaeology, Vol. 16, No. 4 (Winter 1989), p. 427-450. ^ Jump up to: a b Honychurch, Lennox (1997). "Crossroads in the Caribbean: A Site of Encounter and Exchange on Dominica". World Archaeology Vol. 28(3): 291–304. ^ "Irish indentured labor in the Caribbean" . Archived 22 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine . Nationalarchives.gov.uk . 11 March 2013. ^ Calendar State Papers (1676). Number 1152, 1676. The British Colonial Office Public Records. Qt. in Hubbard, p. 85. ^ Watts, David (1987). The West Indies: Patterns of Development, Culture and Environmental Change Since 1492. Cambridge University Press, 1987, p. 285. ^ Goveia, Elsa H. (1965). Slave Society in the British Leeward Islands. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1965. ISBN   0-88258-048-5 Personal stories: Traders and Merchants – John Pinney . In Bristol and Transatlantic Slavery, a project by the City Museum and the University of the West of England's Faculty of Humanities. ^ Baker Motley, Constance (1998). Equal Justice Under Law. An Autobiography. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux. ISBN   0-374-14865-1 . An excerpt from the autobiography, describing her search in Nevis church records for her family's history during the era of slavery, is available online at The New York Times Book Review . Retrieved 8 August 2006. ^ Simmonds, Keith C. (1987). "Political and Economic Factors Influencing the St. Kitts-Nevis Polity: An Historical Perspective". Phylon, 48:4. 4th Qtr., 1987, pp. 277–286. ^ The National Cyclopaedia of Useful Knowledge, Vol.IV. London: Charles Knight. 1848. p. 772. ^ Qt. in Hubbard, p. 195. ^ Brown, Janet (2000). "Early Childhood Investment in St. Kitts and Nevis: A Model for the Caribbean?" . Caribbean Child Development Centre, School of Continuing Studies, UWI, Mona: "St. Kitts-Nevis has one of the highest levels of CXC passes in the region." ^ "Education official calls on students to push beyond their comfort zones" Archived 27 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine . Nevis Government Information Service, 10 January 2007: "In 2002, Nevis captured the award for Most Outstanding School for the year in the Region. [...] In the May/June examinations of 2006, Nevis again recorded its name in the annals of CXC's when it captured two of the eight awards in Business Studies and Technical/vocational Studies. Nevis returned the best performance in Business Studies in the Region in two of the three years that the award had been offered". For results at individual schools, see Caines, Jaedee. "Proud Moment For Lyn Jeffers School" Archived 1 October 2011 at the Wayback Machine . The Observer, 13 October 2005; "Minister of Education to GSS 2005 graduands: The future of Nevis depends on you" Archived 28 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine . SKN Vibes, 24 November 2005; and Washington Archibald High School obtains highest CXC pass rate among 7 others . SKN Vibes, 4 September 2006. Retrieved 7 May 2007. Wilson, Samuel (1990). "The Prehistoric Settlement Pattern of Nevis, West Indies". Journal of Field Archaeology, Vol. 16, No. 4 (Winter 1989), p. 428: "The breakup of the fringing reef has itself contributed to extensive and accelerating coastal erosion on the windward coast of the island, where sea cliffs of unconsolidated volcanic gravels as high as 25 m have developed." Herbert, Roy (2005). "A short historical look at the Relationship between St. Kitts & Nevis" Archived 18 July 2006 at the Wayback Machine . Historical Review. Nevis Independence, 4 February 2005. Retrieved 8 August 2006. ^ "Nevis: 'Reform before independence'" . BBC Caribbean, online edition, 26 January 200 ^ Jump up to: a b Griffiths, Ann Lynn and Karl Nerenberg (2002). Handbook of Federal Countries. Ed. Karl Nerenberg. Published McGill-Queen's Press – M Q UP, 2002. ISB N 0-7735-2511-4, p. 274. ^ General Election in St Kitts and Nevis 3 July 1995: The Report of the Commonwealth Observer Group. Commonwealth Observer Group, Commonwealth Secretariat, 1995. ISBN   0-85092-466-9 , p.3. ^ "Independence for Nevis still on the agenda, says premier." Caribbean Net News, 16 June 2006. Retrieved 8 August 2006. ^ Office of the Prime Minister (1998). "PM Douglas Maintains 1983 Constitution is Flawed." Archived 22 October 2003 at the Wayback Machine Media Release, 11 March 1998. Retrieved 8 August 2006. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h The Concerned Citizens Mo vement (1996). "The Way Forward For The Island Of Nevis." Nevis, Queen o f the Caribees. Nevis Island Administration, September 1996. Retrieved 8 August 2006. ^ "Secession – The Way Forward For Nevis & St. Kitts – Wealth Management – Nevis" . mondaq.com . ^ "Nevis Independent Travel" . nevisindependence.com . Archived from the original on 18 June 2006. ^ Jump up to: a b Phillips, Fred (2002). Commonwealth Caribbean Constitutional Law. Cavendish Pub lish i ng, 2002, ISB N 1-84314-429-8. ^ St. Kitts and Nevis Observer July 16–22, 1995. Qtd. in The Concerned Citizens Movement. "The Way Forward For The Island Of Nevis." Nevis, Queen of the Caribees. Nevis Island Administration, September 1996. Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Ochoa

This article is a part of our collection known as the Marine Hall Of Distinction. It is a different series from our main monthly series & has no connection to the main monthly series. In this special collection, we will discuss marine biologists who we feel have served marine biology & oceanography the most. We do this in order to commemorate these marine biologists & to show gratitude for everything they have contributed to our oceans. This collection has no relation to the main monthly series. This series is published on the 25th of every month, shortly after our article on the oceanic environment of a certain region on the 20th. Today’s marine biologist is Doctor Ruth Deborah Gates. Ruth Deborah Gates was one of the world’s foremost experts on coral ecology, & the effects of ocean acidification on coral. She founded the Gates Coral Laboratory, & has innovated astonishing techniques regarding coral conservation. Her techniques involved figuring out what exactly caused corals to survive stress, & genetically amplifying the gene that caused it to survive. She was also the director of the Hawai’i Institute for Marine Biology, located on Coconut Island.    According to her own testimony, she has a deep passion for the field, & has had it since she was an adolescent. In addition to her career as a scientist, marine biologist, & laboratory director, she has done quite a lot of public speaking, mentorship, & working on documentaries. She & her work were featured in the 2017 Emmy-winning documentary “Chasing Coral”. In this article, we shall discuss the Education & Formative Years Of Doctor Ruth Deborah Gates, The Career & Later Life Of Doctor Ruth Deborah Gates & the Accomplishments, Achievements, Awards, & Honorables Of Doctor Ruth Deborah Gates. With that being said, let us delve into the life of one of the most well versed coral biologists of the 21st Century. The Education & Formative Years Of Doctor Ruth Deborah Gates Ruth Deborah Gates was born on March 28th, 1962. She was born on Akrotiri, which is an area controlled by the British on the island of Cyprus. She was born to John Amos Gates, a Royal British Airforce Intelligence Officer, & Muriel Peel Gates, a physiotherapist. With her father in the military, she was always moving around as a child. For her education, she was sent to a boarding school in Kent, England. Her intense fascination with the ocean & coral biology was always present, however it truly began to blossom in her university years. She enrolled & studied at the esteemed Newcastle University, & earned a Bachelors of Science in Marine Biology Biology. Graduating in 1984, she went on a diving trip to the West Indies to study coral. On this trip, she became absolutely enraptured by them. Soon after, in 1985, she moved to the West Indies to study these corals. She would get her doctorate in Marine Biology in the year 1990, from the same university. Her thesis was on the subject of Seawater temperature & algal-cnidarian symbiosis. The Career & Later Life Of Doctor Ruth Deborah Gates Her first large research projects about coral bleaching events in Jamaica. Soon after, she would conduct research at University Of California, Los Angeles, & the University of Hawai’i. She officially joined the University of Hawai’i in 2003. It is here where she studied how coral reefs function, & what made some corals survive high temperatures. In the year 2013, the Paul G. Allen Family Foundation offered 10,000$ to anyone or any group who could offer the most promising proposal to mitigate the effects of ocean acidification. Gates & another scientist, Madeline Van Oppen, a scientist with the Australian Institute of Marine Science, rose to the challenge. They managed to develop highly resilient coral strains, & won the award. Along with the 10,000 dollars, the foundation granted them a 4 million dollar grant, with the long term goal of developing a stock of coral strains that can replace certain dying coral reefs of the world. Despite criticism on the logistics, & financial support required for such undertakings, the scientist persevered. In 2014, her brother, Timothy Gates, introduced her to Robin Burton, who would later become her wife. The pair would in September of 2018. & remained married until Gate’s passing. In 2015, founded & directed the Gates Coral Laboratory, at the Hawai’i Institute of Marine Biology. She would direct the laboratory for 3 more years, until her unfortunate passing. Gates & her team hosted the first coral restoration conference at the Hawai’i Institute Of Marine Biology in 2017, which brought together some of the worlds best coral biologists to discuss coral restoration. Doctor Ruth Deborah Gates passed away at the age of 56, on October 25th in Kailua, Hawai’i. She passed at Castle Hospital. She passed away due to complications for a surgery related to diverticulitis. Purportedly, she also had cancer that had spread to her brain. Throughout her life, she enjoyed karate, & earned a third degree black belt in it. She had a deep respect for the martial art, so much that she started a small school for it in Hawai’i. Additionally, she learnt how to remodel homes, & mastered the art of cooking. Throughout her career, she was always accessible to the public, & did a lot of public speaking & a few interviews. The super corals that she engineered will have an incredible impact on coral ecosystems, as well as humans. Her contributions to coral reef biology will not be forgotten, & her contributions will have a long lasting impact on the coral reefs of our world. The Accomplishments, Achievements, Awards, & Honourables Of Ruth Deborah Gates Achievement No. 1: She Founded The Gates Coral Laboratory, which is still in operation at the time of publishing. Achievement No. 2: She was awarded the Regents Medal for Excellence in Research. Achievement No. 3: She engineered super corals that are able to survive extremely high temperatures, along with scientist Madeline Van Oppen. Directories / Credits Citation No. 1: “In Memoriam: Ruth D. Gates”, Written By Unknown, & Published at an Unknown Date. Published By the University of Hawai’i. Retrieval Date: March 23rd, 2024. https://research.hawaii.edu/noelo/in-memoriam-ruth-d-gates/ Citation No. 2: “Ruth Gates, Who Made Saving Coral Reefs Her Mission, Is Dead at 56”, Written By Katharine Q. Seeyle, & Published on November 5th, 2018. Published by the New York Times. Retrieval Date: March 23rd, 2024. https://www.nytimes.com/2018/11/05/obituaries/ruth-gates-dead-marine-biologist-who-championed-coral.html Citation No. 3: “Ruth D. Gates (1962-2018)”, Written by Peter J. Edmunds, & Doctor M. Weis, & Published on December 10th, 2018. Published by Springer Nature. Retrieval Date: March 23rd, 2024. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-018-0763-4 Citation No. 4: “Ruth Gates Obituary” Written by Barbara Brown, & Published on November 22nd, 2018. Published by The Guardian. Retrieval Date: March 23rd, 2024. https://amp.theguardian.com/environment/2018/nov/22/ruth-gates-obituary Citation No. 5: “Ruth Gates, renowned coral scientist & conservation advocate, dies at 56”, Written by Christie Wilcox & Published on October 31st, 2018. Retrieval Date: March 23rd, 2024. https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/obituaries/ruth-gates-renowned-coral-scientist-and-conservation-advocate-dies-at-56/2018/10/31/535ca9da-dc73-11e8-b732-3c72cbf131f2_story.html Strategic Partnerships Reel Guppy Outdoors Our Loyal Patrons Ms. Paloma Rodriguez Ochoa